Judicial Activism Essay

It is perchance unsurprising that the liberal hail led by Chief jurist Earl Warren from 1953 to 1969 invalidated federal, state and local laws at almost double the rate of the Roberts solicit. But the to a greater extent than(prenominal) bourgeois court that followed, led by Chief legal expert Warren E. Burger from 1969 to 1986, was even more activist, striking deck laws in almost 9 sh ar of its cases, compared with just over 7 percent in the Warren court and just 4 percent in the Roberts court. The court led by Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist from 1986 to 2005 was in like manner more activist than the current one, at 6.4 percent.In a unexampled book, Terms of Engagement, Clark M. Neily III of the Institute for Justice, a libertarian group, calculated that the Supreme philander struck down just 103 of the 15,817 laws enacted by Congress in the half-century stop in 2002. It is implausible, he wrote, to suppose the federal politics hits the constitutional direct zone 99.5 percent of the time. Mr. Neily urged the Supreme salute to be more brisk but rejected the phrase judicial activism. After the Supreme Court argument in the case in the spring of 2012, with things looking pitch-dark for the fate of his law, Mr. Obama tried to shift the terms of the discussion back to activism. Id just remind conservative commentators, he said, that for years what weve comprehend is the biggest problem on the bench was judicial activism or a inadequacy of judicial restraint that an unelected group of people would roundhow overturn a duly constituted and passed law.Three months after Mr. Obamas remarks, Chief Justice Roberts broke with his usual conservative allies and voted with the courts quadruple liberals to uphold the law. In a joint dissent, the four conservatives said the absolute majority was wrong to portray its ruling as judicial modesty when it amounts sort of to a vast judicial overreaching. In a recent essay, why We Need More Judicial Activ ism, Suzanna Sherry, a law professor at Vanderbilt University, said the Supreme Court had erred more often in sustaining laws than in striking them down. Too much of a good thing put up be bad, she wrote, and democracy is no exception.The articles central cry is based upon political science research showing that the Roberts Court has been more likely to reach conservative decisions than its predecessors. Liptak reports In its first five years, the Roberts court issued conservative decisions 58 percent of the time. Andin the term ending a year ago, the rate rose to 65 percent, the highest number in each year since at least(prenominal) 1953. The recent shift to the right is modest. And the courts decisions have hardly been uniformly conservative. The justices have, for instance, limited the use of the finale penalty and rejected broad claims of executive power in the governments efforts to combat terrorism. But scholars who look at overall trends sooner than individual decisions say that widely accepted political science data tell an unmistakable story about a notably conservative court.This distinction is important because the data presented by Liptak suggests that the Roberts Court is such a conservative minimalist court. Indeed, it appears to be the most restrained or least activist (if activism is defined as willingness to overturn federal statutes or earlier precedents) Court since World War II. According to the data presented with the article in this chart, the Warren, Burger and Rehnquist Courts overturned precedents at an average rate of 2.7, 2.8 and 2.4 per term, respectively. The Roberts Court, on the other hand, has all overturned an average of 1.6 precedents per term. The record on striking down laws shows a similar pattern. The Warren, Burger, and Rehnquist Courts struck down an average of 7.9, 12.5, and 8.2 laws per term, whereas the Roberts Court has only invalidated an average of 3 laws per term. Liptak acknowledges this data at the clo se of his article, but downplays it with his commentary The Roberts court is finding laws unconstitutional and reversing precedent two measures of activism no more often than earlier courts.So, while the majority of the Roberts Courts decisions are conservative, the data Liptak summarizes does not appear to have resulted in a more conservative legal regime, as the Roberts Court has done relatively pocket-size to change the law (at least thus far) compared to its predecessors. This is important, because it effectively refutes claims that there is anything specially radical or activist about the Roberts Court, even if one accepts that it is notably conservative.There is no evidence as yet that the Roberts Court is as willing to challenge federal power as the Court was under Burger (National League of Cities v. Usery) or Rehnquist (Lopez, Morrison, Boerne). There are exceptions, such as some of the Courts Miranda decisions which have certainly made the law little protective of criminal suspects and defendants and Citizens United, but these exceptions are balanced by ravening liberal opinions in areas like executive power and the death penalty. In sum, even if most of the Roberts Courts decisions are conservative a substantive analysis of the Roberts Courts decisions does not reveal a significant rightward shift in the law.

Principles of Health Care Practice Code of Conduct Essay

1.1 IntroductionI am writing this report as a requirement for my HNC Health headache course which testament be submitted to Christine Hughes. In this report I bequeath be comparing and contrastive devil wellness cargon professions, the two health c argon professions I bemuse chosen to compare is breast feeding and amicable behave water. The report depart be high schoollighting the principles of healthcare, such as genteelness and Registration, (still to finish)1.2 nursing pedagogics & RegistrationTo train to be a serve nurse you initiate either a pre- accommodation diploma or degree at university this is unremarkably a three family programme. Degrees and diploma programmes comprise of 50% speculation and 50% figure, with time split between the higher education institute. Nursing is organised into four branches Adult, Children, Mental Health and Learning Disabilities. During the first year of nurse fosterage you are introduced to tout ensemble told of the key a reas as break out of the Common Foundation Programme. In the second and third year you localize on a specific branch, which runs the course. Registered nurses and midwives are amenable for assessing the needs of individuals, cookery and implementing their care, and evaluating the effectiveness.The Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) is the statutory restrictive body for nursing, midwifery and health visiting in the United Kingdom. All nurses drubing in the UK, including those educate abroad, need to be registered with the NMC in order to make as a nurse in the UK, of that care. All able nurses, midwives and health visitors are postulate to be members of the NMC in order to practice. If nurses, midwives or health visitors are put together guilty of misconduct, the NMC has the authority to strike them off the register. www.nhscareers.nhs.uk, www.planitplus.net/careerzone/ www.nursingnetuk1.3 Social Work Education & RegistrationSocial pop off requires a passe-partout qual ification, currently a three year undergraduate honours degree or a two year Masters degree in genial work that has been approved by the prevalent Social Care Council (GSCC)). The course involves a combination of course work and a minimum of 200 geezerhood spent in practice settings providing the opportunity for lots of practical drive in the beginning you actually qualify. The companionable work qualification is suitable for societal players in all settings and sectors. As a student and once qualified you will need to register with the General Social Care Council (GSCC) which is liable for regulating the workforce. Previous qualifications in social work including the diploma will continue to be recognised as valid social work qualifications. There are a variety of ways to enter the social work profession, according to age and previous experience. www.socialworkcareers.co.uk, www.planitplus.net/careerzone2.1 The Nursing & Midwifery CouncilThe NMC is the regulatory body for n ursing and midwifery in that respect purpose is to improve the standards of nursing and midwifery care in order to protect the public through with(predicate) professional standards. NMC register all nurses and midwives to condition that they are properly qualified and competent to work in the UK. They set the standard of education training and conduct that nurses and midwives will deliver high shade healthcare systematically throughout their careers.NMC to a fault makes sure that nurses and midwives keep all their skills and association up to date and to uphold the standards of their professional code. They also investigate allegations made against nurses and midwives who may non come followed the code. Every registered nurse, midwife or health visitor mustinessiness renew their registration every three years. Post-registration education and practice (Prep) is set by the NMC which is designed to help nurses and midwifes provide a high standard of practice and care. There are legal requirements set which must be met in order for there registration to be renewed.2.2 General Social Care CouncilThe General Social Care Council (GSCC) sets standards of conduct for social care employers and workers, this regulates the social care workforce including regulating social work their training and education. The GSCC is responsible for codes of practice for employers and employees in the care sector. Social Care Register is a register of qualified social workers, the registration will ensure that those working in social care meet rigorous registration requirements and will hold them to account for their conduct by codes of practice.Registered social workers are also required to complete post-registration training and learning activities before renewing their registration every three years. Post-registration training and learning requirements that all registered social workers must meet are every social worker registered with the GSCC shall, within the period of registration, complete either 90 hours or 15 days of study, training, courses, seminars, reading, teaching or other activities which could reasonably be pass judgment to advance the social workers professional suppuration. To keep a record of post-registration training and learning undertaken, and failure to meet these conditions may be considered misconduct.Continuing Professional Development in NursingAll registered nurses and midwives are required to take part in continuing professional development (CPD) in order to maintain their professional registration. This is part of the post-registration education and practice (PREP) requirements, set by the Nursing and Midwifery Council NMC. There are two types of PREP, 1. Practice standards and Continuing professional development standards. CPD is fundamental to the development of all health care practitioners, as it is important that nurses keep there knowledge and skills up-to date, to improve standards in the practice and to gain mo re qualifications.To meet the CPD standards nurses must undertake at least 35 hours of learning activity relevant to their practice every three years, to maintain a personal professional profile of their learning activity and to comply with any requests to audit how they have met these requirements. Nurses and midwives who do not comply with the Prep requirements will cause their registration to lapse and can no longer work as a registered nurse or midwife. These requirements must be met every three years, and are declared at the point that registration is renewed.3.1 clinical GovernanceClinical governance is the framework through which the NHS is accountable for the continuing improvement of quality of professional standards whilst still safeguarding high standards of care, thereby creating an environment which aims for clinical excellence. It is to ensure that high quality and professional standards are being maintained, and that health professionals are competent to deliver care safely with the right training and skills. This protects the patients from risks and mistakes allowing them to have confidence and faith in their care providers.Clinical governance also ensures that practitioners are accountable for the quality of patient care they provide consequence that they are more likely to question their practice and seek to make it of more benefit to the patients health. If it is found that those standards are not being met or they have got complaints from individuals about there delivery of care, there will be someone answerable for the failures to maintain standards. Nurses are responsible for their own competence and if they carry out treatments or procedures then they will be deeming themselves to do so.

Herculine Barbin Essay

Upon reading Herculine Barbin, it helped me understand the difficulties in which Herculine had, living as a hermaphrodite living in his century, as it is still rattling difficult to lead such a deportment now. However, m each split of the reading were ambiguous be incur she never postulately mentions the condition of her dead body or what kind of sickness she is exactly hapless from. Although she always mentions the fact that she is suffering and in a great deal of pain, she only goes as further to describe the way she disembodied spirits from the outside and how the others perceive her sickness.In the beginning of the novel, I cant help further be confused astir(predicate) Herculines sexual identity operator. She describes herself as being born in a hospital that treats for sick people of both sexes, but it testms though, for the time being, she is leaving to be living on as a female. However, advancing into the story, we see the sorts of intimacy she gets into as she de clares her bonk for other girls.This is a nonher way to base the reader of the disbelief in the identification of her grammatical gender. I loved her at set-back sight, and though her outward appearance had nothing about it that was dazzling, it was irresistibly attractive because of the modest grace that was shed over her entire person. This plagiarize re hands a bit of masculinity yet also the femininity that was present within Herculine. Herculine calculateed to be warm around other girls and woman, standardised any other female, but there was a certain antithetical intimacy. She had bad up with women and it had taught her to be feminine and loving.However, because women surround her, it all(prenominal)owed her to explore her sexuality and give it as much as possible. We can see uncertainty of gender arising here. Another uncertainty we see is the intelligence that is present in Herculine. She is depict as being the smartest and as being very studious. Some of her traits do make it seem as though she was born to be a male. Although her birth did decide Herculines gender, it does not decide her true identity. thither is a mistaken belief for her gender and there is not an exact way to identify Herculines true gender.Herculine always feels guilty about what she is doing, whether it may be falling in love with Sara or tinge sick. She has to be self-conscious about what she does because it can ruin her reputation. She had to hide her identity in order to get what she wanted. As a child, Herculine had a blue problem createing up with all girls, because she felt a different intimacy with a girl names Lea, and that is where it all had started. Herculine was unable to project her desires later on, curiously with Madame Ps daughter, Sara.Their relationship was so informal that it was becoming painful for Herculine. Herculine was unsure if the identity she was carrying was right or if she compulsory a careen. But she knew that no one was to kno w about the change because it would condemn her from society and shun anyone around her. She could not just be considerate of herself but needed to think about everyone else around her, especially those who were byering and giving help to her. She possesses shame toward her body and its undergoing changes.When her body starts to grow hair, she tries to hide it and when she realizes she is becoming more than masculine, she feels un homy with the transformation. Her refusal to show off her body to the doctor shows us that she does regret and dislike the changes that are going on in her body. It shows off her feminine side. Although Herculine was hurting from the bodily changes, she tries to hide all of these factors because she indeed wants to stay a woman. She feels awkward in society and does not have the problem with the way she was living then.She believed that she was born to love but her identity change later on in the story was forcing her to love like a man. Many times in th e reading, Herculine relies on religious belief to get her through the sufferings. She is very pious and tries to watch into society and uses religion to relieve herself of the outside world. She feels guilty toward the world with regards to what is happening to herself. She wants acceptance or change but at the same time she also wants answers.When she confesses for the first time, she is shocked to find the priest, Abbe H, who is very close and associated with Madame Ps family, throwing insults and terrorise words at her. That was the deciding factor that leads her to secrecy and more uncertainty over her body. However, later she finds people who encourage her and aid her with her disease. One specialised person would be Monsieur de Saint M. He is the one who urges her to go off and tells her the instructions as to what to do in order to cure of her disease. never does he once put her down.He treats Herculine like his own and on his deathbed, Monsieur de Saint M is proud of H erculine and Herculine seems to be thankful toward him. He was like a father figure to her and he led her to live more true to her self. However, even after she undergoes a change to her body, Barbin undergoes obstacles to try to fit in with her new identity and body. To his dismay, the surroundings and people around Herculine look down at her and with disgust. Herculine is unable to find and job and therefore looks for an escape, and that is to the linked States.Society was very stereotypical, because of the fact that although Herculine was now a man, she did not seem or acted like one. However, Herculine himself, or rather herself, did not seem live up to with the new identity and was miserable. This leads to suicide later on. Herculine had to cut her own life due to societal torments. She had to leave her real identity behind and it was the cause of her misery. Herculine was never comfortable living in her society as a hermaphrodite because never in her life did she feel normal and comfortable with herself.

“A Brilliant Solution: Inventing the American Constitution” by Carol Berkin

In the admit A Brilliant Solution Inventing the American Constitution by chirrup Berkin she explains the typography from start to finish from how it all began, to the debates inside the radiation diagram and in conclusion the end product. Berkin takes the reader and perplexs him directly in the middle of the convention of 1786 passim the book you can feel the excite workforcet, the frustration, the tensions in the midst of delegates and the all overall commitment to fashioning a newborn governance work for all.The time for a new establishment came about in times of fright, some men such(prenominal) as William Livingston wondered if the republic could eve survive another decade for total heat Knox made an excellent point in declaring Our present federal government is a name, a shadow, without power, or effect. Meantime the relationship between the states was poor and there was an unforegone conclusion if they would even keep united what with the debts, the frugal t urmoil, and the slow realization that without England they had no defendion from the outside world.The question on everyones mind was, is there anything that can be done to bear their country? 55 delegates gathered in hopes of answering this question with a brilliant solution of their own. The Delegates that gathered in Philadelphia were among the most respected men of their time. They ranged from lawyers to politicians, from the aged Benjamin Franklin to the young Jonathon Dayton, and youd find that all of these men were of blue blood wealth or the few who as Berkin put were the minority that Had risen from obscurity to wealth by virtue of middling about combination of talent, luck, and well-made marriages. Nobody present would ever be considered just a common man, and for some such as Thomas Jefferson, they would happen these men as Demi-gods instead of the regular, flawed, yet brilliant men that they were. It was during this convention that the Virginia Plan was proposed by Edmund Randolph, which was the proposal to write a new constitution instead of revising the Articles of Confederation like intended.After umteen debates between the larger and smaller states on being fairly represented and even more adjustments and altering towards the plan itself, the convention created the Senate which was a body of quick of scent men that was made up of two men rom severally state. This worked out to satisfaction of the smaller states and for the larger states they were given a stand of Representatives that would consist of a larger body of representatives for each state in proportion to the amount of the muckle in that state. During the Convention there were many controversies between these men, some were focused on not wanting to bowl over their constituents back in their home states, and the smaller states were constantly trying to protect themselves from the influence of the larger states, while the southern states feared that a national government woul d upset the slave trade.However, many of the delegates shared a bigger fear throughout the convention, which was putting too much power into a exchange government and the fear that the senate and star sign of Representatives would have too much power. George Mason, an bell ringer advocate of a strong central government withdrew his support and refused to sign the finished Constitution, claiming that the new government would produce a monarchy, or a corrupt, tyrannical aristocracy so for the sake of trying to find a balance, the theme of giving the chief executive the power of veto over legislation was proposed.Along with this power a check was needed, so the idea that a three quarters vote from congress could over line up a professorships veto was adopted. How to elect a President was the cause for some of the longest and grueling debates in the convention, the question of who to corporate trust too choose the president was heavy on all their minds. The delegates knew that it couldnt be left to the legislative power to choose and Gouverneur Morris even declared it would be like the election of a pope by a conclave of cardinals.To leave the choice to the people alone left the certainty that the people would be led and lied to by a few active and designing men as Charles Pinckney put it. Lost and unconnected on what to do, the convention turned the matter over to the Committee of Postponed Matters where after weeks of debate of their own, they came up with something that we know today as the Electoral College. The States were satisfactory to elect an amount of electors equal to the number of representatives in the house and senate.These electors were to undertake in their respective states and vote by ballot for two people to represent their state. From here their votes would be delivered signed, certified and in a crocked envelope, to Congress, where the results were to be counted in front of congressmen and senators. In the event of a tie, members of the House of Representatives would select which would be the president. It was through this process that our first President, who set the power for all presidents to come, was elected.Even when the Constitution had been drawn up and was ready for check by the states, which wouldnt happen for another year after many political battles between Federalists and Anti-Federalists, the Delegates realized that though this document would suffice for now, they couldnt escape the indefinite future, so they included in the constitution a capacity for change which was designed so that later down the itinerary when times had changed and change was needed, it could be incorporated into the constitution as amendments.In closing, Carol Berkin did an excellent job of portraying the struggles and concerns that went on in that Philadelphia license Hall, the framers fought through frustration, pressure, and with each other. They knew what had to be done, and though some did not remain throughout th e convention, we owe our law of the land to the determination of these 55 men.

Elements of the Marketing Mix Essay

This case provide require describe the shargons of the foodstuff mix. These quatern elements include overlap, pleasuredament, hurt and promotion. This reputation get out include a description of how an organizations market system is affected by the four elements of the trade mix. A nonher feeling that this paper willing include is a description of how each element is implemented in the comp each. One more topic that this paper will describe is the organizations name and industry in which it exists. The marketing mix is define as a mixture of several ideas and plans followed by a marketing representative to promote a particular crossroad or brand. some(prenominal) concepts and ideas are combined together to formulate final strategies helpful in making a brand popular amongst the masses to form the marketing mix ( marketing shamble Meaning and Its Elements, n.d.). The elements of the marketing mix are often called the four Ps of marketing (Perreault, Cannon, & McC arthy, 2011).First, Product is specify as goods that are manufactured by organizations for the consumer. Products can be twain types, tangible and intangible. A product in a market place is something which a seller sells to the buyers in exchange for m wholenessy. determine is defined as the money which a buyer pays for a product. The charge of a product is indirectly proportional to its availability in the market. If a product is not readily available then the price goes up (Marketing Mix Meaning and Its Elements, n.d.). Place refers to the location where the products are available and can be sold or purchased. Here one is exposed to a material building, or store, or one can purchase items on the internet. Finally, the quarter element is promotion. Promotion refers to the various strategies and ideas implemented by the marketers to make the consumer mindful of their product (Marketing Mix Meaning and Its Elements, n.d.). Todays market is extensive and there is an abundant variety of products available.Frito typeset is a multi-national stack that is predominantly in the salty snack business. Frito bring down aims its market scheme at both the mass market and target markets alike. This food operate company does have some strengths such as its renowned reliability, superior quality control and markets its product as convenient fun foods. The products that Frito recumb generates have consumers in mind that particularly buy snack foods as a leisure item. Their packing and branding is targeting a consumer that wants to snack on the go or during lunch with a sandwich. With this in mind, the organizations marketing strategy uses all four of the marketing mix very well. Frito Lay sells a wide variety of chips form Ruffles to Lays, Cheetos to Doritos and Tostitos to Funyions.These products satisfy many customers needs for fun snacking. In the Product element, packaging is also very consequential when guardianship the consumer satisfied. Bright colors are use to catch the eye when they bearing the bags that carry all of their brands. In the Place element, the product is highly gross in that one can purchase said items and every whatchamacallum store in the marketplace. non only is the product in honourable about every UDS store but in vending machines and supermarkets. The line of work of distribution is very important to deliver these products to the consumer and Frito Lay has an excellent distribution system in place. The third element, Promotion, targets new customers and retaining current customers. Many community have heard the phrase no one can annihilate just one. This catch phrase was designed for Lays potato chips and hasnt been used in years, but just about everybody has heard that. That is advertising at its finest.The use of mass selling techniques has been advantageous to Frito Lay. The fourth P is Price and that obviously plays an important part in Fritos regulate. Frito Lays strategy is to bond competiti ve with other salty snack manufacturers and their price points. Their target price is also directed at young adults and children. Each element in the marketing mix is used very well by Frito Lay. The products that this spate sells to the consumer vary from salty snacks to cookies and even beef jerky. Frito Lay guarantees freshness for its product and delivers a price point that is competitive to just about any consumer. In the channels of distribution process it is important to get a food item to the retailer in a timely bearing as the food item can spoil.The freshness guarantee that Frito Lay offers dictates that the salty snack has a shelf life of about a month for most products and theproducts need to be removed from the shelves if they do not sell. Because of this model, the delivery system promotes efficiency when sold and distributed to each retailer. Promotions are huge with Frito Lay as they spend millions for point of sale coupons and retail discounts. Not only is there r etail push for sales but Frito Lay spends millions on advertising. Advertising can be seen in standard commercials to elephantine budget commercials during super bowl ads. These methods of communication are geared at mass selling and are very effective.Finally, the Price element is important to Frito Lay as the market price for materials goes up so does the price of their products. To circumvent these price hikes, Frito Lay will lower the content stack in the bag and not raise the price. In other instances, they will raise the price by ten cents and remove the price on the bag for a short period of time. The idea is to trick the consumer into believe the price is the same. In all the instances, Frito Lay has a business model that is very effective and has endured for many years. By understanding the similarities and differences between these elements one can understand how a corporation uses the marketing mix to their advantage. The four elements are critical to understand the ver y nature of the consumer and the retailer. This case study shows that it is important to understand the marketing mix business model as it pertains everyone and final user.ReferencesMarketing Mix Meaning and its Elements. (n.d.). Retrieved from http//managementstudyguide.com/marketing-mix.htm Perreault, W. D., Cannon, J. P., & McCarthy, J. (2011). Basic Marketing. A Marketing Strategy Planning Approach. Retrieved from The University of Phoenix eBook Collectioon database.

Henkie Essay

6.1 Lehman Brothers Lehman Brothers was one of the main casualties of the US end of the orbiculate pecuniary crisis that began in 2007. The US Government, fearing the loss of confidence in the financial markets bailed out Fannie May and Freddie Mac, AIG, and slightly other financial institutions. But when it came to Lehman Brothers, then(prenominal) the fourth largest investment deposit in the US, the Government refused to support and the bank filed for bankruptcy. Whether this was a sound decision is, probably, non the subject for this causal agent though that decision did precipitate a lot of subsequent paradoxs.Rather the case has been written to generate discussion about the domination of a major(ip) institution by one man Richard S. Fuld Jr. The case claims that Lehman Brothers was dominated by Richard S. Fuld Jr. Was this desir able-bodied? What steps could pee-pee been taken to countermand it? Who could have initiated these steps? The discussion should raise mind s where was the plank, particularly the free lance right(prenominal) directors? Did they understand the risks involved in the business model being move by the chief operating officer? Were they acquiescent, pliable, too-trusting, or dominated by the man who was chairperson of the progress, chairman of the administrator committee, and CEO? Where was the audit committee, indeed, where were the auditors? Where was the nomination committee, which should have been considering board structure and membership? Indeed, where was anyone capable of standing up to Fuld?The second unblock concerns the directors ages. Certainly many of them had relevant past experience, but many were old. True, some old people can contribute significantly to board discussions from the experience, noesis and wisdom. But others deteriorate with age. The Lehmans board lacked a balance.The third question is it possible for the research analysts of a financial institution to give birth independent investmen t advice to clients about a company when the financial institution has an bear on in that company? can generate an important discussion that incarnate regulators still struggle to control6.2 The Siemens AG case 1. What aptitude Kleinfeld have done to avoid resigning? Given the apparent cultural run into between Kleinfelds apparent Anglo-Saxon approach to tough-minded vigilance and the more socially-concerned German supervisory board perspective, at that place might have been lower-ranking he could do, other than, perhaps, communicating more closely with the grind and financial members of the supervisory board.In fact, subsequent rumours about the situation surfaced, which suggested there was more to the problem than a clash of expectations. Students might be able to unearth more information from press motifs.6.3 Tokyo Electric office staff and the disaster at Fukushima Daiichi This case exemplifies how a company can report confidently that it has satisfied all the take corporeal validation criteria and however have serious governance flaws that led to a serious problem becoming a catastrophe. 1. Did the structure of the board contribute to the failures? The board was large, executive and lacking any sense of independent outside directors. This is typical in many well-established Japanese companies, as we will see in this chapter. Attempts by the Japanese Government and some international institutional investors, such as US CalPers, have largely failed to change attitudes in the boardroom, to where power should take a breather and who should be promoted to the board.2. How do you account for the discrepancies between the companys allege concern for incorporated governance on its website and the catastrophic failure? This was a company that apparently did not accept the significance of professional corporate governance thinking, but went through the motions to satisfy the regulators and stock market investors.3. What advice would you give to th e chairman of TEPCO? Encourage the students to appreciate the personal and cultural aspects of the situation. Replace the board with a majority of independent directors is not a satisfactory answer. This is not the US or the UK. There is no tradition of independent directors, it runs irrelevant to many top executive beliefs. Moreover, where are these INEDs to come from? Pressure from institutional investors to resign might work but there has to be a replacement. Alternatively, consulting advice, mentoring, attitude changing activities, experience on other boards could all be among the ideas suggested.6.4 The TYCO case What should a board do to ensure that a CEO does not treat the company as a private fiefdom? contend that the CEO probably played a major part in the appointment of the other directors. Furthermore, resignation from the board may have little effect on the CEOs behaviour. This is another corporate governance classic. The challenge to students is to go beyond normative generalisations about how boards should be make up and how directors should behave. They need to realize that personalities really matter. As in many corporate governance sagas mentioned in the textbook, powerful people can exercise big charisma, influence and authority over others particularly if they have chosen them themselves. What was required was a group of INEDs who would insist on knowing what was going on, and if dissatisfy stand up to the CEO/chairman. If appropriate, this case can be explored hike up from a legal aspect to see what offences Kozlowski committed.

Educational Measurement and Evaluation Essay

educational rating started off as a branch of psychological science in the late 50s, as a result of curriculum innovations. It was thence referred to as educational Measurement, Measurement and military rating or Test and Measurement. deep down the last few decades, educational paygrade has grown into a separate, self-governing discipline, though with almost leanings on the ideas of psychologists, psychometricians and statisticians. Efforts of educational evaluators have been directed ad hoc totallyy towards using precision, objectivity and mathematical vigour of psychological measuring stick in ways directly related to educational institutions, educational processes and purposes.educational evaluation involves the systematic assessment of educational activities. Objects of evaluation include instructional programs, school initiatives and education goals. The growth in federal funding for education and policy-makers increase calls for school account capacity have contributed to the growth of educational evaluation. Many too large school districts have personnel responsible for evaluation activities.Definitions of Educational valuationVarious ideas and definitions of educational evaluation ar given by non-homogeneous people/ look intoers.According to Tuckman (1975) evaluation is a process wherein the parts, processes, or fall outcomes of a programme ar examined to see whether they are satisfactory, particularly with reference to the state objectives of the programme, our own expectations, or our own standards of excellence.According to Cronbach et al (1980) evaluation content the systematic examination of events occurring in and consequent on a contemporaneous programme. It is an examination conducted to assist in improving this programme and other programmes having the uni build full general purpose.For Thorpe (1993) evaluation is the collection analysis and interpretation of information well-nigh training as part of a recognized process of discernment its effectiveness, its efficiency and any other outcomes it may have.MeasurementThis is a roomy term that refers to the systematic determination of outcomes or characteristics by means of some sort of assessment device. It is a systematic process of obtaining the quantified degree to which a trait or an attribute is present in an individual or object. In other words it is a systematic assignment of numeral values or figures to a trait or an attribute in a person or object. For instance what is the height of Uche? What is the weight of the gist? What is the length of the classroom? In education, the numerical value of scholastics ability, aptitude, achievement etc endure be measured and obtained using instruments such as base and draw analyze. It means that the values of the attribute are translated into numbers by measurement.Principles of Educational EvaluationThere are important factors to none which toilette shell out as guides to educational evaluators in seeing to the effective planning and executing of educational programmes, to yield the desired positive results.The classroom t each(prenominal)er or evaluator should always be perfectly clear in bis promontory closely what he is aiming to achieve i.e. what to evaluate and how to evaluate. Evaluation of educational programmes should be comprehensive i.e. assess pupils progress in all areas. Educational evaluation, unconnected from testing k todayledge (Memorization), should also bring about pupils originality and use of ideas, and their ability to think and apply the knowledge and skills already learnt.It is noned here that evaluation as an integral part of the instructional process involves three steps. These are i. Identifying and defining the intended outcomes. ii. Constructing or selecting tests and other evaluation tools relevant to the undertake outcomes, and iii. Using the evaluation results to improve encyclopedism and direction.More so, evaluation is a continuous pr ocess. It is essential in all fields of learn and information activity where judgment needs to be made.All evaluation devices/instruments should be valid and undeviating. They are valid when they measure what they aim to measure, and they are reliable when they produce consistent results over time. The teacher as an evaluator should be impartial as much as possible. He should try to exclude personal prejudices.All evaluation instruments should take into account the practical problems of administering and crisscross of the responses i.e. the instruments should be convenient to administer and clear to the pupils. The pupils responses should be easy to mark. Educational evaluation should be well planned in advance and should be carried out continuously, periodically and at least each term.Innovations Brought About in the Evaluation Technique of the Nigerian Educational SystemThere are some faults that place be identified in the evaluation proficiencys utilise onwards, which thr ough the efforts of the educational evaluators, have been corrected or perfected. The evaluation proficiency used before was the one-shot or final, end-of-term or year or seance examination. This technique had served as a great threat to the students, resulting in students cheating, memorizing nones and carrying out premature search for question papers in a contract to fly the coop. Students who passed the end of the year examination through memorization are mark brilliant while those who failed either as a result of initial problems or due to lack of proper guide are regarded as being dull.Efforts have greatly been made to see that students progress in school which has been neglected before is adequately monitored. The problems of the student in specific intellectual task which are non detected until late before are now easily detected.The one shot end-of-term examination technique which has been given undue publicity in schools, leading to tension in the students, have been greatly de-emphasized due to progressive monitoring of students achievement, during the term or session and the introduction of continuous assessment method. Great efforts are now been made by evaluators to de-emphasize consideration tor certificate only in job placement but to consider also the skill and pursual of individuals in the job.In the previous evaluation technique used, the students assessment is coarsely not conducted in a systematic way. Assignments given to students are not always marked or graded. Students are given class test to keep them busy when the teacher is not around or when the lesson is not prepared for. The introduction of continuous assessment in all schools has had a tremendous impact in the gradual if not total excrement of these lapses.The use of diagnostic evaluation in determining the entry level or educational background of the pupils has stateed considerably in checking various problems associated with good deal accession of students.Previou sly, undue emphasis had been given to the cognitive achievement of the students at the expense of the affective and psychomotor domains. Now intensive efforts are in progress to evaluate the students in both. The educational evaluators are making unfailing efforts to see to the pass with flying colors eradication of all problems hi students assessment that gutter lead to examination malpractices.The Purpose of Measurement and EvaluationThe main purposes of measurement and evaluation arei. Placement of student, which involves bringing students appropriately in the learning sequence and classification or streaming of students according to ability or subjects. ii. Selecting the students for endures general, professional, technical, commercial etc. iii. Certification This helps to certify that a student has achieved a particular level of performance. iv. Stimulating learning this can be demand of the student or teacher, providing feedback, suggesting suitable practice etc. v. Impr oving doctrine by helping to review the effectiveness of teaching arrangements. vi. For research purposes.vii. For counseling and counseling services.viii. For modification of the curriculum purposes.ix. For the purpose of selecting students for employmentx. For modification of teaching methods.xi. For the purposes of promotions to the student.xii. For reporting students progress to their parents.xiii. For the awards of scholarship and merit awards.xiv. For the admission of students into educational institutions. xv. For the fear of students.Educational evaluation provides adequate and effective feedback on students achievement not only in the cognitive area, but also hi the areas of wager and manipulative skill. It provides feed-back from students to the teacher about the effect of the teachers teaching method. It also provides feedback from the teachers to the parents about their wards performance. It provides feed-back from school administrators to the policy makers to image the success of the programme. Continual educational evaluation provides valuable information about the pupils progress and comparison with other pupils in the class.Adequate educational evaluation also acts as an incentive to pupils studies. The test, examination and evaluation devices stimulate pupils fire and enable them to make, greater efforts. Without the use of evaluation devices, most pupils will not take their learning seriously. The use of such evaluation devices as empirical techniques, assignments, continuous assessment and projects prevents one-short examinations which can lead to excessive memorization, cramming, unhealthy competition, and the complete neglect of other non-measurable aims of education.Educational evaluation provides pupils record of attainment which can be used for selection for further education, for placement into class or job, and for guidance and counselling purposes.Evaluation of pupils progress provides a valuable opening material for educatio nal research. Data on pupils achievements can help research workers and teachers to identify important educational problems in schools and provide solutions which will help in the improvement of the quality of education.Role of Agencies of Evaluation In Educational Development.Some of the agencies of educational evaluation in Nigeria are West African query Council (WAEC), field of study Teachers Institute (NTI), National Business and Technical Examinations get on (NABTEM), Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB), Colleges of Education, Technical Colleges, Polytechnics and Universities.The government, through the Nigerian Educational Research Council (NERC) reforms the national educational policy and objectives, with the aim of innovation new curricula for the various levels of the educational system.The West African Examination Council controls all forms of educational development and evaluation of the school certificate or general certificate ordinary and advance levels. WAEC is the curriculum planner, developer and evaluator. The teachers are the implementors. WAEC designs the computer program for the various subjects offered at various levels of secondary education each year. It is on the syllabus that the teachers based their scheme of work, their specific objectives and their lesson plans.At the end of duration of the course WAEC organizes assessment examinations for school certificate and general certificate (OIL & A/L). It prepares a general time-table, appoint supervisors for the conduct of the examinations, and appoint experienced markers to mark the answer scripts, collate the marks, carry out the analysis of the results to determine the grade to which each students mark falls,In Nigeria, the WAEC result is the standard eligibility result, base on balls each candidate for further studies or for job selection and placement. National Teachers Institute Carries out similar functions as WAEC but is concerned with Teachers cast II certificat e only. Recently it has got involved in the Nigerian corroboration in Education (NCE) Sandwich programme. National Business and Technical Examination Board (NABTEM)The board conducts, assesses and controls all forms of examinations involving technical colleges and institutes of education throughout the nation. It has its headquarter in Benin. The function of the board is similar to that of WAEC. In addition to staple fiber sciences, they also examine all subjects in technical education, social studies and side language. The result obtained here can be used for further studies or job placements. Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB)It represents the transitional delegation from the secondary to the tertiary institutions such as the colleges of Education, Polytechnics and Universities. Its role is to set common entrance examination questions in all subjects, for all candidates seeking admission into higher institutions. Candidates with good passes in advance level papers or NCE are offered direct admission to the Universities of their choice.Conclusion and RecommendationsIn general, those practitioners in the educational system are most of the times interested in ascertaining the outputs of the educational programme. Output is counted in terms of test results which are naturally verbalized in quantitative indices such as scores or marks. Test, which is a device, an instrument or a tool consisting of a set of tasks or questions, is used to obtain the results. Test can be in the form of pen and paper examination, assignments, practical etc. The process of administering this test is called testing. besides an act of measurement is done when we award marks to an answer paper or assignment.So measurement gives the individuals ability in numerical indices of scores i.e. measurement is quantitative. Assessment can be seen as the engine that drives and shapes learning, rather than simply an end of term examination that grades and reports performance. Eval uation is expressed in qualitative indices such as good, excellent pass or fail.Value judgment is therefore attached to the measurement.Evaluation can be placement, formative, diagnostic or summativeREFERENCESCronbach, L. J. (1960) Essentials of psychological testing (2nd edition), unsanded York Harper.Obimba, F.U. (1989) Fundamental of Measurement and Evaluation in Education and Psychology. Owerri, Totan Pub. Ltd.Paul, L. D. (1976) vade mecum of schoolman Evaluation. New York McGraw-Hill.Ohuche, R.O. and Akeju, S.A. (1977) Testing and Evaluation in Education. Lagos African Educational Resources (AER)STRAIDE Handbook (2002) Assessment and Evaluation in Distance Education. New Delhi A offspring of Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU).Tuchman, B.W. (1975) Measuring Educational Outcomes Fundamental of Testing. Atlanta Harcourt come alive Jovanovich inc.

The Present Government Is Planning to Increase Compulsory Education to Age 18. Why Is Such a Measure Necessary? What Are the Reasons for the State to Implement Such a Law?

The puzzle political science is planning to adjoin domineering pedagogy to mount 18. wherefore is such(prenominal) a measure necessary? What atomic number 18 the primers for the state to follow through such a uprightness? The proposed insurance polity of changing compulsory reading from 16 to 18 clearly shows the administrations vision in how to they int mop up walk pop out a stronghold grip on economy and its problems. Governments aims fill constantly been to go off attainment for all children and to blind drunk the go against between the richest and the poorest (Lemieux, 2006 ).From the upstart 1970s to 1991 the disposable in add together of the top quintile group change magnitude form 26 to 42 portion, whilst the bottom quintile group fell from 10 to 7 percent (www. statistics. gov. uk), and this has additiond further in current times. A feasible reason for this increase inequality is the shifts in constancy from non- hot workers to skilled workers ove r the foregone 20 years, and educational systems failures to meet these changes.Raising education therefore would overhaul create the supply of wear that industries demand, and inspection and repair increase economic developing and GDP both vital requirements in enounce for the country to come out of the recession, which is an inherent part in all government policy. With recruit levels of unemployment, it is without doubt that this proposed policy intends to target and get the unemployment rate, especially amongst young individuals, as to a greater extent than education races to improve job opportunities in the future.Increasing education requirements would therefore theoretically solve the problem of increase pressure by economists to cut costs and solve the ever-growing colony of many on welfare. It is all important(predicate) to first define the valet uppercase theory as it plays an integral part in the following tear downs. Human crownwork theory is that the to a greater extent ameliorate and individual, the greater earning potential for that individual as he/she is more than productive due to the skills they construct attained. Belfields definition of human capital is the most comm but authentic as an individuals embodied skills above their raw(prenominal) ability (Belfield, 2000 17).Based on this idea, raising the informdaysing climb on to 18 would therefore make young students obtain more skills, becoming skilled and more productive school principaling to greater job prospects and greater loot potential. In the long fountain this would lead to increased consumption, less(prenominal) dependence on welfare due to less unemployment, increase GDP and stand by boost the economy out of recession. The proposed policy is necessary because it cultivately take ons spring chicken unemployment that is crippling the current economy. With recent figures stating that as of September 2010, 2. 45 one million million million people are u nemployed (www. bc. co. uk), it is important the government aims to reduce this to jockstrap boost the economy, and improve national morale. By increase the schooling age, the government hopes to solve the change magnitude number of young people unemployed. NEET is a government term that shows the number of people non in education, employment, or training. youthful figures show that 183,000, 9. 2% of young people aged 16-18 in England were NEET at end of 2009 (www. publications. parliament. uk). It is an alarming figure as it is one of the worst in the OECD countries, and needs to be tackled.This is because being NEET at a young age is associated with negative outcomes in later life, each having a cost not just for the individual but also for the economy as a whole (www. publications. parliament. uk). By implementing the proposed policy, this figure of 9. 2% of 16-18 year olds being NEET would be eradicated, and improve their chances of finding employment after leaving school. G reater human capital, revised outlook on goals and better decision-making are the result of more education, and as a result, in the long run, unemployment would fall, and there would be less strain on the welfare system.However, such a law is only effective if it back ups meet the needs of the get the picture market. Labour market patterns and trends come played an important role in the decision to implement the proposed policy. over recent years there have been shifts in relative labour demand that have favoured skilled workers (Machin & Van Reefen). The 1980s saw base of operations developments in technology and is often referred to as the information age. Computers, sophisticated machinery, and other technical change has had a clear effect of increasing the relative demand for skilled workers (M & Van R).This intuitively has led to a decrease in demand for non/semi-skilled workers in the labour market. This phenomenon is heighten by the globalisation of many industries, and the membership of the EU, leading to many industries using substitute(a) cheap labour in other countries increased foreign aspiration has damaged the position of less skilled workers (M & Van R). Hough put in front the argument that the education system and its role is often far from what the manufacture requires (Hough, 1987 15).Although this was not directly to do with the school leaving age, it is still germane(predicate) in this argument because it is clear that right a expressive style skilled labour is what labor requires, and by increasing the schooling age to 18, the education system would avail create more skilled workers through greater human capital accumulation and allocative efficiency, leading them to be more adaptable to work in such skilled professions. consequently the increasing of the compulsory schooling age could be utilize to reduce unemployment range.This is because labour supply of youths would meet the requirements of labour demand, something tha t hasnt been the case over past years. This in turn would increase productivity and output, and help boost the economy, which is another important government aim. Therefore the proposed law can be seen as a office of tackling unemployment. Industries have been crippled by the recession, and the economy is growing at a real slow rate. By making young individuals more educated, it is widely accepted that this would lead to increased productivity and greater economic egression.It is based on the assumption of human capital theory more education leads to increased productivity levels. Therefore by feeding the labour market with more skilled individuals (which is what the market demands), productivity and output within industries would increase. As the policy would increase education levels, wage levels lead rise as individuals who pre-policy executing would enter semi-skilled work, enter more skilled professions, leading to an increase in national income.With more skilled labour en tering the labour force, industries forget be able to down the stairstake more skilled/capital intensifier practices as they now have more able workers to carry out such operations. This leads on from the foregoing point, as productivity exit increase as well as output. In the long run this would lead to increased consumption therefore the economy will grow. By increasing the schooling age to 18, the government are taking a direct approach to stimulate economic growth in the long run and increase output.Since the introduction of new labour in 1997, recent governments have constantly tried to reduce inequality in society to close the gap between the richest and the poorest (Lemieux, 2006 ). Inequality in wages have arise dramatically in the UK over the past 20 years, with wage growth more evident at the upper tail of the distribution (Slemrod, 1996 99). The increasing of the schooling age can be seen as another peter in solving this. It can be linked to the previous point of m eeting the demands of the labour market.It is often the case that when a child leaves school at 16, the opportunities for that individual to obtain high earnings are actually limited, as they do not have the skills to compete with more educated individuals and therefore are often limited to low paid, non/semi-skilled professions. Hence by increasing compulsory schooling age to 18, individuals who would normally find themselves at the lower tail of the wage distribution would have potential increased earnings due to the more human capital accumulated, and reduce the gap between the two ends of the wage distribution.A counter argument to this is analogous to the problem induced by the implementation of the minimum wage in affecting wage distribution with the wages of the those at the top end of the distribution also increasing. As a result inequality would be unaffected. Having said that, the fact that earnings prospects for young individuals would be greatly enhanced by the policy, shows that reducing inequality in the sense of bettering individuals standard of living, shows that this proposed policy would still be very effective in tackling the issue.The government is under great pressure to reduce the welfare state in order to help reduce the huge deficit of the country. The welfare system use to be a safety net for individuals, but unfortunately has now turned into a fishing net with many abusing it. Increasing the compulsory schooling age to 18 could be seen as a way to reduce the potential dependence people could have on welfare. By allowing students to develop their skills and have greater human capital, the prospects of them finding employment are that much greater, therefore reducing the possibility of unemployment and thusly claiming off the state. wholeness of the biggest strains on the state is teen pregnancy as it can lead to a vicious cycle of future offspring going through the same direction of life. Teen fertility is driven by neighboring(a) t hinking-efforts (Oreopoulous) and poor decision making that is the result of little education. Conception rates for England was 40. 5 per 1000 girls aged 15-17 in 2010 (www. dcsg. gov. uk), which although is down on previous figures, is still regarded as to high by government officials.Oreopoulous states that education leads to better decision-making and eradicates the present orientated preferences of individuals (Oreopoulous, year ). Increasing the schooling age by two years therefore can only be a positive step in trying to reduce teen fertility, and hence reduce the strain on the welfare state and as a result can be shown to be another reason why the government are opting for such a policy.Finally, one must talk over the selection approaches that the government could have taken instead of increasing the school leaving age. ALMPs are a government tool used to raise output and welfare and reallocate labour between sub-markets (Boeri & Ours, 2008 261)). However, it is viable to declare those ALMPs such as training and activation programmes will be used in conjunction with the new law therefore strengthening the possible success of the proposed law further in tackling the problems of the labour market.After analyzing and evaluating the proposed law of raising the school leaving age, I have come to settle that the government have felt that such a measure would tackle youth unemployment, help create the supply that labour markets demand, increase toil and output leading to economic growth, reduce wage and social inequalities, and reduce the dependence many might have on welfare. All these points help build towards the bigger picture the government has to get the country on the right path to get out of the recession.It is a law that will reap rewards in the long run and will make inroads into changing the careless and unambitious culture of todays youth. The law will be more beneficial to the country if it is worked in conjunction with alternative labour mar ket policies such as training, and activation policies that will help those who leave school at 18 unemployed. It can be seen in broader aspects boosting the countrys moral and self belief and help Britains labour market and industry compete greater internationally. In my opinion is it is a necessary measure, and such a law will go a long way in helping stabalise and boost the economy.Bibliography Belfield, Clive R. Economic Principles of Education. Cheltenham Edward Publishing Limited, 2000 Hough, J. R, Education And The subject Economy. USA Croom Helm, 1987 Lemeiux Machin and Van Reefen Slemrod, Joel. Tax Progressivity and Income Inequality. Cambridge Cambridge University Press, 1996. Oreopoulous Boeri, Tito and Ours, Van Jan. The Economics of unaccented Labour Markets. New Jersey Princeton University Press, 2008. Other sources www. statistics. gov. uk www. bbc. co. uk www. publcations. parilament. uk www. dcsg. gov. uk

American war for independence II

The American war for emancipation was a sassy vicissitude that was relevant for various political and kindly reasons. Due to the changes caused by much(prenominal) revolution, the changes that happened during this event greatly changed the course of American History. In order to to the full understand the radical disposition of the American variation, it is first important to soon discuss the events during this period. Occurring in the latter half of the 18th century, the American Revolution was the event that allowed the Thirteen (13) Colonies to become the United States of America.This was also the event that finally granted these colonies the independence that they desired from the British Empire. The American War of Independence or Revolutionary War that ensued from 1775 to 1783 was largely radical in nature because of the fact that it was the first instance that a colony had tried and succeeded to get into independence from the British Empire. One of the key developme nts resulted from this revolution was the birth and growth of enlightenment philosophy in America.The influence of this wave of thinking created a certain sect that was opposed to an absolute monarchy, such as that of the British Empire, and instead embraced a new form of government that was revolutionary for its time. The tolerant intellectual and social paradigm shifts at bottom the colonies introduced new ideas with regard to republican ideals that began to take hold among the members of the colonies. Democracy soon began to play a larger role in the determination of the new government that was going to renew the absolute monarchy.The steadily expanding role of democracy in government caused the constipation of traditional social hierarchies that existed. Instead a new ethic was created within the core of American Political values. While the United States was arguably not the first democracy to ever exist, the neo-classical model that arose during this time was largely unhe arable of in other parts of the world, particularly from a British Colony.These social and political changes greatly impacted the way that the world saw the Americas from that bear witness on. As the birthplace of modern democracy as the world flat recognizes it, the United States of America soon became the symbol of world democracy. The birth of new ideas with regard to government, representation and social class were all altered by this event. It was so influential that it became the foundation of the American Constitution and the reason why the United States will always be known as the domain of the free.

In what ways is the concept of gender useful in the study of ancient history?

In antiquity gender was a specify feature of life, we bunghole put d give birth that it affected the panache ordering was kind organizationd, specifically in the Athenian polis, as well as reciprocalplace typefaces, such as those associated with spectral crazes. Gender was also influential in politics, especially that of the Romans. Moreover, it is through gender that we gage give away the general antique view to crusadeds wo custody, found through divulge numerous literary sources and archaeological remains.Firstly, there is a strong link between gender and the Athenian polis, which was unremarkably considered to be anthropoid dominated. 1 From an early time male and female youths were polarised, so that males were educated professionally, with a strong emphasis on completing sports at the palaestrai and gymnasia, then they were sent away to complete their military service. In contrast, wo hands were denied no much than than basic schooling. However they wer e introduced into alliance through religious deliriumuss. It is through education that the classical Athenians erected a self-aggrandizing division between the sexes, in order to prep atomic number 18 the youths for their mathematical functions in later life-men for maneuverership in state and military affairs, women for more subordinate business offices.For example, archaeological evidence suggests that refreshing(a) men were groomed for prominent positions in the state, that is, pitchers have been found that instance boys celebrating the fiesta, Anthesterion, the f pitifuler month, by sampling wine and participating in travel races. The mildewer would have been a simplistic pre-taster for male youths of a symposium, philosophic sessions intertwined with heavy drinking periods, exclusively for male citizens. The playwrights Plato and Aristophanes recognised their splendor in the polis, as it was for affluent male citizens.In Aristophanic comedies he oftentimes allud es to scenes of drink and obscenity mixed with intervals of learned opinions. The latter would have prep atomic number 18d the youths for gymnastic competitions. Keuls suggests that it is through these activities young boys were instilled, with the norms of competitiveness and male privilege. 2 In comparison, classic women were initiated into society through religious voices, specifically those associated with chastity, labour and submission. The cult of genus Athene was concomitantly important, in which a robe known as a peplos was dedicated to the goddess that had been especially woven for the occasion.It was then hand overed to her either by deuce or four noble girls, known as arrhephoroi, bearers of sacred objects. Scenes from this cult can be found on sections of the Parthenon frieze (440BC-432BC), detailing steadyts such as the folding of the peplos by the Archon Basileus, chief magistrate, helped by a young child. This was a material affair because the cult of genus At hene portrayed the distinctions necessitate loveable in each sex. That is, she represented the male patriarchal ethos,3 through a wild war dance, the pyrrhic dance, which was per giveed by build up dancers.This highlights, through the festival that males were associated with war and had a responsibility to foster the polis. On the other hand, Athena also represented the female ethos, by emphasising the necessity of hard formulate and chastity through the tasks of spinning and weaving, which were disposed(p) reputable military position, through the ritual of the peplos. Athenian women were associated with passive tasks, illustrating their subordination to men within the polis. It is also hearty that religious festivals structured the female pecking order.We have already setd that it was sole(prenominal) noble girls who could become arrhephoroi, whereas in other cults, such as that of Artemis at Brauron, all girls could participate in the rituals. Just as the female hi erarchy leaseed cult festivals to differentiate between the varying classes, the male hierarchy was immovable by society-the polis and the military. For example, Xenophon, in the Anabasis, highlights the importance and allure of the head of the army, the hegemon, compared to less(prenominal)(prenominal) important positions in the military.That is, when a manteis, a divine interpreter, attempts to slander Xenophon-in this reason he is acting as the hegemon-by suggesting that he would have founded a new city without consulting his troops, Xenophon retorts Silanus gave me his answer on the most important point, namely, that the appearance of the victim was propitious. He had to since he was aware that I myself, because of always organism present at sacrifices had some experience in these matters. 4 This illustrates, in general, that in warfare, sacrifices were at a lower placetaken or overseen by those in commanding positions, such as the hegemon, because they regularized the s tate. Those in less significant positions in the military had a minimal bow in the track of the state. Thus, highlighting that the military and state were spry influences in determining the male hierarchy. So far, we can none that education and cult festivals were influenced by gender, illustrating the importance of perusal it in antediluvian patriarch history, as it gives us a fuller picture of ancient Greek society.Furthermore, the cognizance of the sexes can be seen to vary vastly, Xenophon highlights this in his Oikonomikos, when he determines that men were built for war because their bodies could endure toil and hardship, whereas women were made for domestic work. 5 A nonher ancient scholar, Ischomachos, comments that the nature of men and womens mind also differ, as women are considered to be more susceptible to emotions and show a wishing of restraint. Physical and psychological features influenced ancient Greek scholars into stereotyping the sexes and thus explaining why each gender sought different billets in society.In consideration to the cult of Athena, we can timber that the study of mythology is also relevant to the idea of gender and its effects on society. That is, the Panathenaic procession was ftd on the myth of the origin of Ericthonius, who was associated with capital of Greece. Hephaistos spilt semen on Athenas lap, which she wiped off with some wool, scarcely then Ericthonius was born. The child was then given to Cecrops daughters, but twain of them, Herse and Aglauros, looked at the baby, despite Athenas type that they should not. This myth emphasises the importance of women as child bearers and nurturers in society.The relevance of the wool can be associated with textile making, an occupation that was encouraged in young women. Likewise the cult of Artemis illustrated to women the importance of chastity, as the myth behind her cult warns them that promiscuity is an unwanted and unacceptable value. Artemis punishes her nym ph, Kallisto, who had been raped by Zeus, by changing her into a bear, who is consequently hunted and killed by her own son. The Greeks used the myths as moral paradigms, warning women against unacceptable behaviour in the polis. Furthermore, Artemis was also concerned with childbirth, as clothing were dedicated to her at Brauron.Keuls comments that this cult, may have been the most effective way of instilling in females the ethos that male society required of them. 6 In comparison, if the cult of Artemis and Athena portrayed i convey female virtues that were affable for their single-valued function in the polis, then the cult of Theseus represented ideal virtues for the Athenian male citizen. He was the archetypal male hero, as he saved Athens and slaughtered the Minotaur. In a mixer context, he had protected the polis and by warring means had killed a foreign existence that threatened the well being of the state-actions that were expected of all male Athenians.Funerals were also a very significant event within the polis and the concept of gender greatly influenced its organisation. Women play a vital role in the prothesis, the procession preceding the actual funeral, when the embody was placed on a bier and was surrounded by mourners. It was the role of the women to lament- the more intense they seemed, the more honoured the dead appeared. Firstly, in connection with threnody, we can note that women played an integral role in this procession, as they allowed men to make up an austere appearance.This allowed the males to protect their male front, as they could refrain form internationally expressing their grief. We have already observed, from ancient scholars, such as Xenophon, that barely certain characteristics were deemed acceptable for men. Plaques and funeral vases illustrate the different roles performed during the prothesis by men and women. For example, a funeral pot of the late geometric period depicts men in processions of armed warriors or on horseback. 7 It is notable that they remain untearful, when compared to the numerous figurines of women in lamentable positions.The men honour the dead by highlighting the prestige of dying whilst in battle. Two ideals of mourning were set up to protect the social structure-women lament due to their lack of restraint of their emotions, emphasising their fragile characters, deeming them mentally ill for leadership. Whereas, men retain their dignity through their restraint and their passive role in the prothesis. Furthermore, funerals allowed aristocratic families to present their rank and part in society. Therefore, the lamentation was a chew overion of the familys status. Hans Van Wees states that, tears were a sign of view to the dead ears of women played a part in the power struggle of men. 8 This illustrates that women had a significant role in the society of men, but one that was manipulated to benefit the running of the state. Moreover, the emotions of the women beca me so severe, as they behaved as a forte, that Solon had to institute legislations to curtail their exhibit, as women had resorted to lacerating their arms and other forms of self-mutilation. The concept of gender is also very noteworthy in ancient literature, as men and women were perceived very differently in comparison to their acquaintance in the polis.For example, during the Homeric era, it was not uncommon to observe heroes crying, a characteristic that would later be associated with the fairer sex. We first see Odysseus on Calypsos island, weeping in despair to return home to Ithaca. 9 Likewise, Homer frequently alludes to Odysseuss wife, Penelope, crying. For instance, we observe her crying for her lost husband when she retrieves his bow for the suitors competition. 10 Both of the genders display similar characteristics, which Homers audience obviously found acceptable in men.This emphasises that the crack between the genders widened with the feeler of society and the f ounding of the structure of the polis. A get on example that illustrates this point can come from the medium of tragedy, as the cognition of male literary figures had conformed to the opinions of the polis. That is, male characters are portrayed as more restrained towards their emotions, in Aeschylus Agamemnon, the male king shows a considerable deal of restraint when Clytaemnestra offers him the sacred carpets to walk on.He states This-you treat me like a woman ive me the tributes of a man 11 Agamemnon displays his lack of excitement towards the frivolity of walk of life on nice tapestries that obviously would have appealed to a womans nature. In the Homeric era, heroes appreciated niceties-Odysseus is bathed in perfume when he gets to Phaecia, there are constant allusions to genus Paris preening and primping himself and we are frequently reminded of his good looks. This illustrates the progression of the male status from the Heroic age to classical Athens. Briefly, we can note that Homeric heroes took an active grieving role in funerals.Achilles pours grimy dust on his governance and beasts his breast, accompanied by his handmaidens then Homer states that Antilochus mourned with him, letting the tears tholepin 12 Furthermore, this reiterates the different characteristics found in the male persona of the heroic age, alternatively than the age of the polis. However, we should also observe that the Homeric heroes were not completely without restraint, they estimable depicted less moderation than would have been acceptable for later Greeks. For example, the Trojans are commanded not to weep whilst collecting their dead bodies from the battlefield, which they do.They show a determined self-control, perhaps not as noted in the Homeric women, such as Odysseus wife, Penelope. Furthermore, it is also through tragedy that we can note the progression of the comprehension of ancient women. In reference to Aeschylus Agamemnon, it has been observed that Clytaemnes tra is portrayed with masculine attributes, as it is she who plots and kills her husband, with an axe in the bath. Her lover, Aegisthus, states to the chorus The treachery was the womans work, clearly. 13 In the prologue, the security guard comments That woman -she manoeuvres like a man. 14Firstly, Clytaemnestra has overstepped the divide that marked the different statuses of men and women in the polis, on account of her masculine behaviour. Aeschylus, through tragedy, has illustrated that if women are not supervised within society, the social structure will collapse, as they are lead by their emotions. This would have highlighted the importance of the kyrios, who acted as a defender to Athenian women, to keep them in check within the polis. Moreover, this illustrates the common perception of women, as tragic heroines are often perceived as being manipulative, treacherous and unfaithful.This is emphasised by the character of Clytaemnestra, as well as Electra, who later persuades h er brother, Orestes, to kill their mother, in Aeschylus Eumenides and Euripides Electra. These characteristics illustrate that women are unworthy to lead the state, and highlights the insistence that they remain inferior to men within the social structure, maintaining their role in family matters. In Aristophanic comedies, such as Lysistrata, women were also depicted as being drunkards and sex fiends, qualities that were associated with slaves.This is noteworthy, as slaves were considered not to be wholly reposition and without possessing any rights within the polis, such as voting. Furthermore, slaves and women were also both low down in the social structure. Aristotle in his Politics, stated that women were, slaves by nature. This demonstrates the lack of emancipation that women possessed, highlighting their privacy within classical Athens. The majority of the time, women were physically kept within the home-apart from when they participated in particular public events-to keep them subordinate, in a social context.Furthermore, according to Solon15, if a woman was in the fellowship of men all the time, she would not want to get married. Thus she would be defying her role as a life giver and producer of heirs, and so she would be disrupting her status within the polis. In contrast, in the heroic age of Homer, women were given a considerable amount of freedom, for example, we see Helen with Priam, on the walls of Troy, pointing out to all the different Greek warriors. Moreover, Penelope, in the Odyssey, acts as the hostess at the banquet of the suitors, totally surrounded by men.We can see that the seclusion of women became more intense with the founding of the polis, which brought along a greater need to categorise the genders. The concept of gender is also very significant when studying the politics of ancient capital of Italy. Roman historians of the imperial era have put down the great influence of women on particular male emperors. For example, the hi storian, Tacitus, in his Annals, records the influence of Neros mother, Agrippina the Younger, on his political career. It is she who initiates the poisoning of her husband, Claudius, and his son, Britannicus, so that Nero can usurp the power of the empire.Roman coins depict her bust, alongside that of her sons, displaying that she is ruling with him. It is significant that her role becomes less influential as Nero grows up and adopts more power. This is again illustrated through the medium of the coins, as we can note the gradual removal of her image from the obverse of the coins. The influence of his mother was so strong that he could only be freed from it, by attempting to murder her, through a collapsing boat. Thus, this demonstrates that imperial women dominated their male associates and played a leading role within in the running of the state.However, we should note that they still remained in the background, ruling behind their male relatives, as Rome was a male dominated sta te. Clark suggests that, women might, then, have considerable influence and interests distant their home and families, but they were acting from within their families to affect a social system managed by men their influence was not to be in public acknowledged. 16 However, it has also been recorded that other imperial women had infiltrated the very male event of patronage.Octavia had acted or had interceded with male relatives as a patron, also, Messalina and Agrippina the Younger, were the patrons of Claudius freedmen, such as Narcissus. This highlights the prestigious role of women in the empire. It is also significant that they were involved in particular public affairs, demonstrating that the social structure of Rome was gradually changing form being solely a male establishment, to a state outwardly influenced by both genders. Furthermore, Dio records that the senate honoured Livia with an arch as she had helped many senatorial children in times of need.7 Likewise, the public recognition of Livias role in the running of the state was acknowledged by the senate. However, it is important to note that the prominent role of women during the imperial period was not considerably favoured by all. Fischler comments that many men considered a good emperor to have had wives and mothers that he could control and who never overstepped the boundaries set by convention. 18 For example, Tiberius refused honours for his mother, Livia, because he did not want to seem to be influenced by her actions.Women may have been more prominent in the political sphere but it was not fully approved by the public opinion, which was aired by the majority of men. The significant role of women was fully acknowledged by Augustus, the first Roman emperor, who recognised the importance of women as figures of a new political regime. They represented the move from the republican era to the Imperial era, as they were significant members of his dynasty. Fischler goes onto observe that women we re symbols of the imperial order. 19 The society of the Republic was less tolerant of the presence of women in the public eye.They had some rights within the state, such as, they were not allowed to vote or, as Valerius Maximus records, appear or act in courts20 and were generally under the potestas of the paterfamilias. However, unlike the Greek polis women were not secluded from society, as they were allowed to own property and divorce their husbands. There were two types of marriage- that of cum manu, in which the woman remained under her fathers rule, as he even had the power to end her marriage or that of sine manu, in which women were allowed to own their own property an divorce their husbands.The former type of marriage was common in the early Republic and the latter, in the late Republic. This illustrates the progression of womens freedom in society and their further prominence in the public eye. The perception of gender and the way it affected the structure of society can be noted in forms of literature, such as satire. For example, Juvenal, who was piece of music either under the emperor, Trajan or Domitian, perceives the progression of women in the public sphere as a bad thing.That is, women had transgressed the divide between the genders, as they had adopted masculine roles in society, such as acting in political matters, demonstrated in Tacitus portrayal of Agrippina. Furthermore Juvenal goes onto condemn the public sexuality of women and the growing fuzziness of men. In a social context. He highlights the breakdown of the social structure of the Roman society, that is, he considers the sexes to have intensifyd roles and transgressed their divisions, which had given certain roles to men and to women in order to structure society.For example, he describes the whore empress coming home from the bathhouse to the Imperial palace. 21 Furthermore, his female persona attacks males for preferring homosexuality and states that overseas good deal are laughing at their effeminacy. 22 In contrast, he frequently extols the old virtues of chastity in women and praises the good old days, when men worked in fields and completed other masculine tasks23. Thus highlighting the change of roles in gender, on account of a changing society.In conclusion, we can argue that the concept of gender is extremely important when studying ancient history, as it played a significant role in defining the structure of society. The progression of society, both Greek and Roman, can also be marked by the changing perceptions of each gender, found in capacious literary sources and archaeological material. These sources of evidence make it possible to study gender, up to now we should also take into account, when using literature as evidence, some external influences. For example, when consulting tragedy or comedy.For the perception of Greek women, we should note that the playwrights exaggerated the characteristics of figures, for outstanding effects. Tha t is to say, in the polis, not all Greek women were alcoholics with a sex addiction, as portrayed in Aristophanic comedies. Likewise, from Juvenals satires we cannot assume that all Roman women were promiscuous, due to the devolution of their social structure. The ancient writers were assuming the worst-case-scenarios, highlighting what would happen without a social structure in society.However, there is truth behind these pieces of literature, as the authors had to base their work on realism, so that their audiences could relate to their work. Furthermore, we should take into consideration the genre that the author was writing for, for example, Tacitus was considered to be a silver age writer, thus his writing would have portrayed characteristics of that type. Thus, his work is macabre and sombre therefore his portrayals of his characters would reflect that style. Likewise, archaeological evidence should be considered with care, as depictions on pots and vases are left-hand(a) to our own personal interpretation.

Principal Agent Conflict

2. Explain several dimensions of the shareholder- forefront conflict with manager-agents know as the principal-agent problem. To mitigate agency problems between senior executives and shareholders, should the compensation citizens direction of the board devote more to executive recompense and bonus (cash compensation) or more to long-term incentives? Why? What role does each type of suffer play in motivating managers? There are several dimensions to the principal-agent conflict.Principal-Agent Relationships populate whenever one person or party works in the interests of some other party. The owner (the principal) hires and often delegates decision-making authority to professional managers (the agent) to perform tasks on his behalf. The quarrel for the principal is to create an environment in which the agent has incentives to align their interests with those of the principal. The principal typically creates incentives for agents to act as the principal wants.The principal-agent conflict acerbates when the incentive dodging creates a conflict of interest, the principal cannot ensure the agent is performing but the way the principal would like and due to the intrinsic unobserved managerial effort and the presence of random disturbances in team production. The lack of nurture shared between the two nonpluss it impossible and expensive for the principal to monitoring device the decisions and accomplishment of the agent.The agent usually has less to lose than the principal whence they often seek acceptable fritter aims of profit and shareholder wealth epoch pursuing their own self interests. The uncertainty and risk includes the principal not knowing the extent to which the contract has been satisfied and they end up give agency costs. To mitigate agency problems between senior executives and shareholders, the compensation committee should devote more to executive pay and bonuses (cash compensation) dependant on the level of cooperation between the executives and the board.If the board is able to secure the cooperation of the executives through higher wage and bonus, such action is acceptable. In addition, if the board can set up a system of monitoring the executives so that the executives make the effort necessitate to further shareholder interests. Monitoring improves executive performance and can be combined with cooperation. If long term incentive schemes are used thence there is isk that the organization may not make profits or the financial outcomes on which the incentives are based may not take place. When negotiating with managerial talent, the high risk of incentives keeps reputed managers away from the company. Top managers want to be certain of the compensation they will receive. Incentives are supposed to motivate managers to make more efforts, take responsibility, and achieve more. However, the insecurity of incentives reduces the motivation of managers.They feel dubious when the bulk of their compensation is incentive based. The role of higher executive salary and bonuses are to provide security to the top managers and motivate them. Overall, executive salary and bonuses based on negotiation with board members should reduce shareholder-manager conflict. There should be cooperation between the board members and the executives. A mechanism for monitoring executive performance will go a long way in change the alignment of executive action with shareholder interest.

The Philippine Revolution Against Spain Essay

1996 is a significant year for Filipinos either oer the world. It marks the centennial of the Philippine variety, which started in 1896 and offici everyy terminusinate in 1902. The amount of literature generated during and after the transmutation, coupled with the continuing captivation on this period by historians and a resembling which bring on produced an infinite way out of scholarly works, have validated the wide paste perception that this was the most spl deceaseiferous page in the history of the Filipino people. The Philippine Revolution stop more than than triplet centuries of Spanish colonial rule which began when Miguel Lopez de Legazpi effected the settle manpowert of Cebu, the oldest Philippine city, in 1565.The Revolution is similarly heralded as the outset anti-colonial independency movement in Asia. The Filipino proclamation of their independence dickens foresighted time after the outbreak of the Revolution was a momentous event for Filipinos of all p ersuasion. The Revolution began with the rabble through the Katipunan, a secret, subversive, mass-based organization, and was afterward embraced by the substance class. Indeed, the Revolution was 1 of the few times where in that respect was a intersection in the home(a)ist movements of the masses and the elect group.The KatipunanThe Katipunan (meaning Association) planned and initiated the Philippine Revolution. It was founded in Tondo, manilla, by Andres Bonifacio and a few other fellow urban workers on July 7, 1892. Its full Tagalog name is Kataastaasan Kagalang-galang na Katipunan nang manga Anak ng Bayan (Highest and Most Venerated Association of the Sons and Daughters of the Land). From its inception, Katipunan was spoilt by blood, with all its members enacting the traditional blood compact and signing their herald with their own blood. The foremost goal of the Katipunan was political, the separation of the Philippines from Spain. Its members also recognized and perf ormed a civic duty which was mutual availance and the defense of the deplorable and the oppressed.The Katipunan was steered by Bonifacio, who became known as the Supremo (Supreme) of the Katipunan, and he was ably supported by Emilio Jacinto, who emerged as the Brains of the Katipunan. Philippine historians regard Bonifacio as the Great Plebeian because he came from a poor family inTondo and worked as a warehouse clerk. Despite his poverty, Bonifacio was adapted to educate himself by reading the works of Rizal and the French innovationists. Because of its brotherhood appeal, Katipunan was sprightly in recruiting members from the peasants and the working class. Philippine historian Reynaldo Ileto points out that the Katipunan be doggeded to a long tradition of social movements in Philippine history which fortunately have been disparaged and branded by authorities and the elite as illicit associations and its members as bandits. equal most of these popular movements, the Katipun an was clothed in millenarianism.In their publications, Bonifacio and Jacinto expound the pre-Spanish period as an era of kasaganaan (great abundance) and kaginhawaan (prosperity). The demise of this glorious era was a result of the tyranny of Spanish colonial rule. The Katipunan then envisioned the upcoming as one marked by kalayaan (independence), a state of universe where there would once again be liwanag (knowledge) and kasaganaan (prosperity). Kalayaan would mean a re shield to the pre-Spanish condition of prosperity, bliss, and contentment. only when it entailed cutting ties with the colonial mother, Spain, and the birth of a nurturing legitimate mother, Inang Bayan or Motherland, meaning Philippines. From the start, the Katipunan drew inspiration from Jose Rizal, whose nationalist writings horny an oppressed nation into action.His two novels, the Noli Me Tangere (Touch Me Not) and the El Filibusterismo (The Subversive), denounced the decadent colonial edict presided by the incompetent and abusive colonial officials and the backward and immoral frailocracy. In the 1880s, Jose Rizal and his fellow ilustrados founded the Propaganda Movement in Europe where they vigorously campaigned for the implementation of the a great deal needed reforms in the Philippines. Their failure to force Spain to institute reforms convinced the Katipunan that the call must be for revolution and non reform.In 1892, Bonifacio sought the send word of Rizal on their planned revolution and the latter cautioned them because of its untimeliness and the peoples unpreparedness. Events forced Bonifacio and the Katipunan to launched the revolution. On marvelous 23, 1896, the Katipunan was discovered by the Spanish authorities, actuate Bonifacio and the Katipuneros to tear their cedula (identification card), which symbolized their colonial oppression, and to declare in Pugad Lawin the beginning of the Philippine Revolution. The Spanish execution of Rizal on December 30, 1896 further emboldened thereligious Filipinos who aphorism Rizals martyrdom as similar to the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, i.e., to pay his people.Ethnicity and the Creation of National IdentityInitially, the Revolution appeared to be an entirely Tagalog affair. The first eight responsiblenesss to rise in arms were all in the Tagalog office and its adjacent areas Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, Tarlac, Pampanga, Manila, Laguna, Cavite, and Batangas. Even among these provinces, fighting was minimal except for Cavite, Bulacan, and, of course, Manila. Most of the wiz revolutionary leaders were Tagalogs, and their initial appeal of support was directed towards the Katagalugan or the Tagalog people. This was not surprising since prior to the Revolution, Filipinos did not think of themselves as one homogenous race. Identity was instead linked with regional paganity. The Spanish insurance of divisiveness aimed at effecting colonial rule promoted and encouraged regional isolation and ethnic distinc tions. By the nineteenth century the term Filipino revivered to the Spanish insulares or those born in the Philippines.The Filipinos in general were loathingly called indios and their identity was rooted on their regional origin or ethnic affiliation Tagalog, Kapampangan, Cebuano, Ilocano, Ilonggo, etc. In the first two years of the Revolution, battles raged mainly in the Tagalog provinces. Outside the Katagalugan, responses were varied. Pampanga, which was stuffy to Manila, was uninvolved in the Revolution from September 1896 to the end of 1897, perhaps because the conditions which bevy the Tagalogs to rise in arms were not totally similar in Pampanga. For instance, friar estates or church monopoly of landholdings which triggered agrarian unrest in Tagalog areas was not pervasive in Pampanga. Besides apathy, there were those, such as round Albayanos of Bicol, who were even apprehensive of rumors of a Tagalog rebellion aimed at ousting the Spaniards and utilisation Tagalog hege mony over the non-Tagalog ethnic groups.Historian Leonard Andaya claims that what brought the Revolution to the non-Tagalog areas was Aguinaldos policy of supporting his military officials to sacrifice to their home province and mobilize topical anesthetic support. For instance, the Revolution came late in Antique, and it was due to oecumenical Leandro Fullon, an Antiqueno principalia general of Aguinaldo, who went to his home province to spread the Revolution. Even after the Revolution spread to the rest of Luzon andthe Visayas, there were still suspicions as to the real motives of the Tagalogs. For example, the Iloilo elite changed the name of their provisional revolutionary political relation and called it the Federal State of the Visayas since they did not want to recognize the mastery of Aguinaldo and the Tagalogs. They preferred instead a federal arrangement composed of the three main island groups Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao.These reservations and suspicions by non-Taga logs were somehow reinforced by the initial writings and proclamations of key Tagalog personalities of the Revolution. Bonifacio wrote a revolutionary piece which he entitled Ang Dapat Mabatid ng mga Tagalog or What the Tagalogs Should Know. Aguinaldo, in his memoirs, wrote chapters entitled The Tagalog Government Begins and Long Live the Tagalogs. and in the absence of a general, generic term to collectively refer to the inhabitants of the archipelago, Filipino being a term originally reserved for the Spanish insulares, Tagalog may have appeared to the leaders of the Revolution as a uniform substitute because of its indigenous element. In due time, however, Aguinaldos proclamations bit by bit introduced the composition that all the inhabitants of the Philippines are Filipinos.Tagalog became less used and in its place Filipino was increasingly mentioned. The Revolution likewise assumed a national character. The contract bridge of Philippine independence was both(prenominal) si gnificant and symbolic in the imagining and forge of a Filipino nation-state. Although there was a gradual acceptance of the term Filipino, nonetheless up until the previous(predicate) American period, Tagalog was still occasionally used. General Macario Sakay, a Tagalog general who continued the war against the Americans even after Emilio Aguinaldo was captured, called his political sympathies in 1902 the Tagalog Republic, although its charter noted that Visayas and Mindanao were included in his Republic.Filipino Women RevolutionariesLike ethnicity, gender played a significant role during the Revolution. As early as 1892, the Katipunan had a womens chapter, Katipuneras, which was mostly made up of the wives, mothers, sisters, and daughters of the Katipuneros. plot the Katipuneros men held orderdestine alludeings in the interior or back of a house, the Katipuneras contributed the diversionary tactics in the living room for passers-by to see. Some of these Katipuneraswere Grego ria de Jesus, Andres Bonifacios wife, who became known as the Lakambini or First Lady of the Katipunan Jose Rizals sisters and Melchora Aquino who was also called Tandang Sora (Old Sora). Tandang Sora became a legend because she was a medicine woman who stitched the wound and cured the sick. Her home was used by the Katipunan for their clandestine meetings and she served the Revolution by rendering her medical expertise to Katipunan members. there were also numerous Filipinas who deluxe themselves in the battlefield. In 1896, Gregoria Montoya y Patricio, upon the expiry of her Katipunero husband, led the charge of a thirty men unit while holding a Katipunan fleur-de-lys on one hand and a sharp-bladed bolo tie (machete) on some other hand. She used a white piece of cloth, commonly used during mass, to ward off bullets. Another Filipina revolutionary was Agueda Kahabagan who fought the Spaniards armed with a rifle, brandishing a bolo and dressed in white. Teresa Magbanua, on the other hand, earned the sobriquet Joan of dismission of the Visayas for the valor she displayed in galore(postnominal) battles.But Filipino womens fellowship during the Revolution was not confined to real fighting. Rosario Lopez, a scion of the wealthy hacendero Lopez clan of Negros, donated firearms to the revolutionary cause. Similarly, women of Cavite utilized their business connections to form a network of contacts for the Revolution. The Filipino Red Cross, established in 1863, became another venue for women participation in the Revolution. In 1899, the Red Cross, under the leadership of the wife of Emilio Aguinaldo, had thirteen chapters spread out from Ilocos Norte to Batangas. conventionalismal female activities such as sewing and preparedness were utilized outside the homes to serve the needs of Filipino array.Struggle betwixt the Masses and the EliteAside from ethnicity and gender, class involvement was central to the Revolution. In the aftermath of the outbreak of the revolution, most of the ilutstrados or the nineteenth century shopping center class denounced the Katipunan and re impertinented their loyalty to Spain. Many ilustrados immediately condemned the revolution as an irrational action of uneducated masses. Some, like Rizal, believed that it was an ill-timed and ill-prepared struggle. But many did so out of allegiance to Spain. Later when the Katipunan was winning battles, some ilustrados gradually turned around and embraced the revolution. These ilustrados, though driven by nationalism like the masses,fought to preserve their social status and economic wealth. Their interests and agenda vastly differed from the objectives of the Katipuneros. different ilustrados preferred to remain fence-sitters until the tide of the Revolution was clear. In a weigh of the municipal and provincial elite of Luzon during the Revolution, Milagros C. Guerrero concluded that fountainhead-to-do Filipinos as well as municipal and provincial officials refused to join the Revolution during 1897 and early 1898.There was even hesitancy even after they did join. Many history books call down that class coflict was symbolized by the leadership struggle in the midst of Bonifacio and Aguinaldo. In wrinkle to the working class background of Bonifacio, Aguinaldo was an ilustrado and a former gobernadorcillo or town executive in his home province of Cavite. Aguinaldos ascendance to intumescency as a result of his strategic victories in battles naturally brought him into conflict with Bonifacio over the leadership of the Revolution. In a sense, their bitter struggle reflected the move out of the masses and the ilustrados during the Revolution. It started as a result of the intramural between the two factions of the Katipunan in Cavite the Magdiwang and Magdalo. Their conflict had deteriorated such that each one refused to assist the other in battles. Moreover, in one of the battles in Manila, the Caviteno forces even failed to provide assistance to the revolutionaries of Manila.Bonifacio as Supremo of the Katipunan was invited to Cavite to resolve the factional differences and thus ensure a linked front against the Spaniards in the province. Once in Cavite, the ilustrados maneuvered to ease Bonifacio from the leadership. In the Tejeros Convention of March 22, 1897, they voted to supersede the Katipunan with a revolutionary government and an election of the officers of the new government was conducted. Aguinaldo was elected as President while Bonifacio lost in several elections for key posts in the first place he finally won as Director of the Interior. But a Caviteno, Daniel Tirona, immediately questioned his lack of education and skill for the post, and insisted that he be replaced instead by a Caviteno ilustrado lawyer, Jose del Rosario.Insulted and humiliated, Bonifacio as Supremo of the Revolution declared the election and the formation of the new government void. What followed was a glum mark in the hi story of the Revolution. Aguinaldo, upon the prodding of his fellow, ilustrados, ordered the arrest and campaign of Bonifacio on the grounds of treason. A bogus trial found Bonifacio and hisbrother, Procopio, guilty, and they were sentenced to death. Aguinaldo gave his cheering and the Bonifacio brothers were shot on May 10, 1897, at Mt. Tala, Cavite. In rationalizing the fate of Bonifacio, Aguinaldo and his men claimed Bonifacio was establishing his own government which would have subverted the revolutionary cause. His elimination was necessary to sustain unity under Aguinaldos leadership. Ironically, Bonifacio, the father of the Revolution, became a victim to the ambition and self-serving interests the ilustrados as personified by Aguinaldo.Truce of Biak-na-Bato and the Betrayal of the RevolutionThe death of Bonifacio was a turning point in the Revolution. The stewardship of the Revolution was left to Aguinaldo and the elite. But the Filipinos and the Spaniards faced a long ha ul. Aguinaldos troops were being routed in Cavite and, thus, his revolutionary government moved to the more secluded Biak-na-Bato in Bulacan. At this time, Aguinaldos commitment to the revolutionary cause became suspect. His military advisers persuaded him to issue a declaration that his Biak-na-Bato government was willing to return to the fold of law as soon as Spain granted political reforms. These reforms included the expulsion of the despised Spanish friars and the return of lands they appropriated from the Filipinos Filipino representation in the Spanish Cortes independence of the press and religious tolerance equality in treatment and requital for both peninsular and insular civil servants and equality for all before the law.This pronouncement by Aguinaldo proved that he and the ilustrados were willing to return to the Spanish fold provided there were reforms and the ilustrado interests were met. The standoff in the battlefield prompted both sides to coincide to an armisti ce. The Truce of Biak-na-Bato stipulated that Spain would pay financial remuneration to the Filipino revolutionaries in re-sentencing for the surrender of arms and the voluntary exile abroad of Aguinaldo and the other leaders. Toward the end of December 1898, Aguinaldo and the other revolutionary leaders went into voluntary exile in Hong Kong and they were given the initial sum of 400,000 pesos, most of which were deposited in a Hongkong lodge and used later on to purchase more weapons. Distrust on both sides resulted in the failure of the truce. Both sides were only biding time until they could launch another offensive. The coming of the Americans marked the second phase of thePhilippine Revolution.In Singapore, Aguinaldo met U.S. consul Spencer Pratt who persuaded him to cooperate with the Americans. In February 1898, the American warship Maine was mysteriously sunk in the waters of Havana, Cuba. This incident was the immediate cause of the Spanish-American struggle. Admiral Ge orge Dewey who was stationed in Hongkong acquire a cable on April 25 announcing that war had commenced between the two countries. He was ordered to retake the Philippines and, on May 1, 1898, his flagship U.S.S.Olympia defeat the Spanish fleet in the Battle of Manila Bay at a cost of eight wounded Americans and around five 100 casualties on the Spanish side. Back in Hongkong, Aguinaldo was told by U.S. consul Rounsenville Wildman that Dewey cherished him to return to the Philippines to resume the Filipino resistance. Aguinaldo claimed that the American officials prodded him to establish a Philippine government similar to the unite States, and that they pledged to honor and support the Filipinos aspiration for independence. Spencer, Wildman, and Dewey would later deny having made any promise or commitment to Aguinaldo.annunciation of Philippine Independenceand the Birth of the Philippine RepublicWith transportation provided by the Americans, Aguinaldo and his leaders returned to Cavite. They resumed their war offensive against Spain and reestablished the revolutionary government. Because of the exigencies of the time, Aguinaldo temporarily established a dictatorial government, but plans were afoot to proclaim the independence of the country especially since the Spaniards were reeling from defeat one battle after another. From the balcony of his house in Kawit, Cavite, Aguinaldo declared on June 12, 1898 the independence of the Filipinos and the birth of the Philippine Republic. For the first time, the Philippine flag, stitch in Hongkong by the womenfolk of the revolutionaries, was unfurled. Two bands played Julian Felipes Marcha Nacional Filipina which became the Philippines national anthem. The declaration further emboldened the fighting Filipinos. On June 18, 1898, Aguinaldo passed a mandate calling for the reorganization of the provincial and municipal governments.In her article, Guerrero claims that following the liberation of Luzon from the hands o f the Spaniards, elections were held in Cavite, Bataan, Batangas, and Pampanga in June and July in Manila,Tayabas (now Quezon), Pangasinan, Ilocos Norte, and Ilocos Sur in August in Abra, Camarines Norte, Camarines Sur, and Nueva Ecija in September in Nueva Vizcaya and La Union in October and in Isabela, Catanduanes, Albay, and Sorsogon in December. The elected provincial and town officials were mostly the aforesaid(prenominal) local officials during the Spanish period. This was because the requirements for voting and nomination to public office were circumscribe to those who were citizens of 20 years of age or above who were friendly to Philippine independence and were distinguished for their high character, social position and honorable conduct, both in the center of the community and the suburb.These provisions automatically excluded the masses in the electoral make for, and insured continued elite supremacy of local politics, even by those who were Spanish supporters and symp athizers during the early phase of the Revolution. Since the ilustrados had exclusive moderate of the electoral process, the provincial and municipal reorganization merely resulted in perpetuating elite dominance of society and government. Guerrero claims that records of the period reveal the composition of the municipal elite was unaltered and local offices simply rotated within their ranks. But not all areas of Luzon came under the control of the ilustrados during the Revolution. In some towns, uneducated and poor masses were elected by an electorate who most probably did not meet the qualifications stipulated in Aguinaldos decree.Guerrero claims that the principalia or ilustrado local officials of Solano in Nueva Ecija and Urdaneta in Pangasinan complained over the election of the uneducated and ignorant who they argued were totally incapable of governing. But this was more of an aberration since the general picture was one of elite dominance and the estrangement of the masses. Despite Aguinaldos order abolishing three hundred years of Spanish polo or forced labor, the local elite persisted in demanding personal go from the people, on top of the taxes levied against them. In some towns and provinces conditions were even worse as the elite wrangled among themselves, especially since Aguinaldo did not clearly delineate the responsibilities of the elected civilian and appointed military officials.This leads some historians to conclude that the masses in towns and countryside were the eventual(prenominal) victims of what transpired during the Revolution. The American entry into the picture convinced the remaining fence-sitting ilustrados to support the Revolution. When rumors of an impending Spanish-American War were circulating in April 1898, several noted ilustrados led by Pedro Paterno offered their service to the Spanish governor-general. Yet when Aguinaldo returned from exile, several ilustrados serving in the Spanish militia, like Felipe Buencamino, aba ndoned the Spaniards and announced their conversion to the revolutionary cause. Indeed, the resumption of the revolution brought an electrifying response throughout the country. From Ilocos in the north down to Mindanao in the south, there was a simultaneous and collective struggle to oust the Spaniards. Months later, when the Filipino-American War commenced, many ilustrados played the middle ground, i.e., on one hand, they sent rowing of support to Aguinaldo and, on the other, started contemplating on an autonomous status for the Philippines under the unite States.An example was the Iloilo ilustrados who eventually sided with the Americans since their economic interests sugar production and importation order collaboration with the new colonizers. Indeed, in the parlance of contemporary Filipino political culture, the ilustrados were the classic balimbing or two-faced. Despite the constant vacillation of the elite, Aguinaldo and his advisers tapped on their services in organizi ng the Philippine Republic. Aguinaldo was eager to prove that the Filipinos could govern themselves, and in the process it would legitimize the Philippine Republic. Moreover, since he and his advisers were ilustrados, Aguinaldo only trusted his own benign the wealthy, educated, and politically experienced in the matter of governance. Thus, he called on them to call together and create a Congress which would draft a constitution. He wanted a Philippine constitution to complete the required trimmings of a sovereign, nation-state flag, army, government, and constitution.In his actions, Aguinaldo was advised by Apolinario Mabini who became known as the Sublime paralytic because his spirit was not deterred by his physical handicap, and the Brains of the Revolution due to his knowing acumen. On January 21, 1899, Aguinaldo proclaimed the Malolos Constitution which was drafted by the ilustrados of the Malolos Congress. Two days later, the Philippine Republic was inaugurated in Malolo s, Bulacan, the new capital of the fledging government. The Philippine Republic was, however, short-lived. From the start, Aguinaldos forces were fighting the Spaniards without military assistance from the Americans.Except for the Battle of Manila Bay,the United States was not a major force in the fighting. The American troops did not arrive in the country until late June, and they saw no military action until August. But events starting with the Spanish surrender of Manila on August 13, 1898, doomed the end of Philippine independence. Although the Spanish troops had been routed in all fronts by the Filipinos, the continuing presence of the Americans was unsettling. Questions on actual American motives surfaced with the continuous arrival of American reinforcements. It did not take long for the Filipinos to realize the genuine intentions of the United States. The precarious and uneasy Philippine-American alliance collapsed on February 4, 1899, when the Philippine-American War broke out and threatened to annihilate the new found freedom of the Filipinos.