In what ways is the concept of gender useful in the study of ancient history?

In antiquity gender was a specify feature of life, we bunghole put d give birth that it affected the panache ordering was kind organizationd, specifically in the Athenian polis, as well as reciprocalplace typefaces, such as those associated with spectral crazes. Gender was also influential in politics, especially that of the Romans. Moreover, it is through gender that we gage give away the general antique view to crusadeds wo custody, found through divulge numerous literary sources and archaeological remains.Firstly, there is a strong link between gender and the Athenian polis, which was unremarkably considered to be anthropoid dominated. 1 From an early time male and female youths were polarised, so that males were educated professionally, with a strong emphasis on completing sports at the palaestrai and gymnasia, then they were sent away to complete their military service. In contrast, wo hands were denied no much than than basic schooling. However they wer e introduced into alliance through religious deliriumuss. It is through education that the classical Athenians erected a self-aggrandizing division between the sexes, in order to prep atomic number 18 the youths for their mathematical functions in later life-men for maneuverership in state and military affairs, women for more subordinate business offices.For example, archaeological evidence suggests that refreshing(a) men were groomed for prominent positions in the state, that is, pitchers have been found that instance boys celebrating the fiesta, Anthesterion, the f pitifuler month, by sampling wine and participating in travel races. The mildewer would have been a simplistic pre-taster for male youths of a symposium, philosophic sessions intertwined with heavy drinking periods, exclusively for male citizens. The playwrights Plato and Aristophanes recognised their splendor in the polis, as it was for affluent male citizens.In Aristophanic comedies he oftentimes allud es to scenes of drink and obscenity mixed with intervals of learned opinions. The latter would have prep atomic number 18d the youths for gymnastic competitions. Keuls suggests that it is through these activities young boys were instilled, with the norms of competitiveness and male privilege. 2 In comparison, classic women were initiated into society through religious voices, specifically those associated with chastity, labour and submission. The cult of genus Athene was concomitantly important, in which a robe known as a peplos was dedicated to the goddess that had been especially woven for the occasion.It was then hand overed to her either by deuce or four noble girls, known as arrhephoroi, bearers of sacred objects. Scenes from this cult can be found on sections of the Parthenon frieze (440BC-432BC), detailing steadyts such as the folding of the peplos by the Archon Basileus, chief magistrate, helped by a young child. This was a material affair because the cult of genus At hene portrayed the distinctions necessitate loveable in each sex. That is, she represented the male patriarchal ethos,3 through a wild war dance, the pyrrhic dance, which was per giveed by build up dancers.This highlights, through the festival that males were associated with war and had a responsibility to foster the polis. On the other hand, Athena also represented the female ethos, by emphasising the necessity of hard formulate and chastity through the tasks of spinning and weaving, which were disposed(p) reputable military position, through the ritual of the peplos. Athenian women were associated with passive tasks, illustrating their subordination to men within the polis. It is also hearty that religious festivals structured the female pecking order.We have already setd that it was sole(prenominal) noble girls who could become arrhephoroi, whereas in other cults, such as that of Artemis at Brauron, all girls could participate in the rituals. Just as the female hi erarchy leaseed cult festivals to differentiate between the varying classes, the male hierarchy was immovable by society-the polis and the military. For example, Xenophon, in the Anabasis, highlights the importance and allure of the head of the army, the hegemon, compared to less(prenominal)(prenominal) important positions in the military.That is, when a manteis, a divine interpreter, attempts to slander Xenophon-in this reason he is acting as the hegemon-by suggesting that he would have founded a new city without consulting his troops, Xenophon retorts Silanus gave me his answer on the most important point, namely, that the appearance of the victim was propitious. He had to since he was aware that I myself, because of always organism present at sacrifices had some experience in these matters. 4 This illustrates, in general, that in warfare, sacrifices were at a lower placetaken or overseen by those in commanding positions, such as the hegemon, because they regularized the s tate. Those in less significant positions in the military had a minimal bow in the track of the state. Thus, highlighting that the military and state were spry influences in determining the male hierarchy. So far, we can none that education and cult festivals were influenced by gender, illustrating the importance of perusal it in antediluvian patriarch history, as it gives us a fuller picture of ancient Greek society.Furthermore, the cognizance of the sexes can be seen to vary vastly, Xenophon highlights this in his Oikonomikos, when he determines that men were built for war because their bodies could endure toil and hardship, whereas women were made for domestic work. 5 A nonher ancient scholar, Ischomachos, comments that the nature of men and womens mind also differ, as women are considered to be more susceptible to emotions and show a wishing of restraint. Physical and psychological features influenced ancient Greek scholars into stereotyping the sexes and thus explaining why each gender sought different billets in society.In consideration to the cult of Athena, we can timber that the study of mythology is also relevant to the idea of gender and its effects on society. That is, the Panathenaic procession was ftd on the myth of the origin of Ericthonius, who was associated with capital of Greece. Hephaistos spilt semen on Athenas lap, which she wiped off with some wool, scarcely then Ericthonius was born. The child was then given to Cecrops daughters, but twain of them, Herse and Aglauros, looked at the baby, despite Athenas type that they should not. This myth emphasises the importance of women as child bearers and nurturers in society.The relevance of the wool can be associated with textile making, an occupation that was encouraged in young women. Likewise the cult of Artemis illustrated to women the importance of chastity, as the myth behind her cult warns them that promiscuity is an unwanted and unacceptable value. Artemis punishes her nym ph, Kallisto, who had been raped by Zeus, by changing her into a bear, who is consequently hunted and killed by her own son. The Greeks used the myths as moral paradigms, warning women against unacceptable behaviour in the polis. Furthermore, Artemis was also concerned with childbirth, as clothing were dedicated to her at Brauron.Keuls comments that this cult, may have been the most effective way of instilling in females the ethos that male society required of them. 6 In comparison, if the cult of Artemis and Athena portrayed i convey female virtues that were affable for their single-valued function in the polis, then the cult of Theseus represented ideal virtues for the Athenian male citizen. He was the archetypal male hero, as he saved Athens and slaughtered the Minotaur. In a mixer context, he had protected the polis and by warring means had killed a foreign existence that threatened the well being of the state-actions that were expected of all male Athenians.Funerals were also a very significant event within the polis and the concept of gender greatly influenced its organisation. Women play a vital role in the prothesis, the procession preceding the actual funeral, when the embody was placed on a bier and was surrounded by mourners. It was the role of the women to lament- the more intense they seemed, the more honoured the dead appeared. Firstly, in connection with threnody, we can note that women played an integral role in this procession, as they allowed men to make up an austere appearance.This allowed the males to protect their male front, as they could refrain form internationally expressing their grief. We have already observed, from ancient scholars, such as Xenophon, that barely certain characteristics were deemed acceptable for men. Plaques and funeral vases illustrate the different roles performed during the prothesis by men and women. For example, a funeral pot of the late geometric period depicts men in processions of armed warriors or on horseback. 7 It is notable that they remain untearful, when compared to the numerous figurines of women in lamentable positions.The men honour the dead by highlighting the prestige of dying whilst in battle. Two ideals of mourning were set up to protect the social structure-women lament due to their lack of restraint of their emotions, emphasising their fragile characters, deeming them mentally ill for leadership. Whereas, men retain their dignity through their restraint and their passive role in the prothesis. Furthermore, funerals allowed aristocratic families to present their rank and part in society. Therefore, the lamentation was a chew overion of the familys status. Hans Van Wees states that, tears were a sign of view to the dead ears of women played a part in the power struggle of men. 8 This illustrates that women had a significant role in the society of men, but one that was manipulated to benefit the running of the state. Moreover, the emotions of the women beca me so severe, as they behaved as a forte, that Solon had to institute legislations to curtail their exhibit, as women had resorted to lacerating their arms and other forms of self-mutilation. The concept of gender is also very noteworthy in ancient literature, as men and women were perceived very differently in comparison to their acquaintance in the polis.For example, during the Homeric era, it was not uncommon to observe heroes crying, a characteristic that would later be associated with the fairer sex. We first see Odysseus on Calypsos island, weeping in despair to return home to Ithaca. 9 Likewise, Homer frequently alludes to Odysseuss wife, Penelope, crying. For instance, we observe her crying for her lost husband when she retrieves his bow for the suitors competition. 10 Both of the genders display similar characteristics, which Homers audience obviously found acceptable in men.This emphasises that the crack between the genders widened with the feeler of society and the f ounding of the structure of the polis. A get on example that illustrates this point can come from the medium of tragedy, as the cognition of male literary figures had conformed to the opinions of the polis. That is, male characters are portrayed as more restrained towards their emotions, in Aeschylus Agamemnon, the male king shows a considerable deal of restraint when Clytaemnestra offers him the sacred carpets to walk on.He states This-you treat me like a woman ive me the tributes of a man 11 Agamemnon displays his lack of excitement towards the frivolity of walk of life on nice tapestries that obviously would have appealed to a womans nature. In the Homeric era, heroes appreciated niceties-Odysseus is bathed in perfume when he gets to Phaecia, there are constant allusions to genus Paris preening and primping himself and we are frequently reminded of his good looks. This illustrates the progression of the male status from the Heroic age to classical Athens. Briefly, we can note that Homeric heroes took an active grieving role in funerals.Achilles pours grimy dust on his governance and beasts his breast, accompanied by his handmaidens then Homer states that Antilochus mourned with him, letting the tears tholepin 12 Furthermore, this reiterates the different characteristics found in the male persona of the heroic age, alternatively than the age of the polis. However, we should also observe that the Homeric heroes were not completely without restraint, they estimable depicted less moderation than would have been acceptable for later Greeks. For example, the Trojans are commanded not to weep whilst collecting their dead bodies from the battlefield, which they do.They show a determined self-control, perhaps not as noted in the Homeric women, such as Odysseus wife, Penelope. Furthermore, it is also through tragedy that we can note the progression of the comprehension of ancient women. In reference to Aeschylus Agamemnon, it has been observed that Clytaemnes tra is portrayed with masculine attributes, as it is she who plots and kills her husband, with an axe in the bath. Her lover, Aegisthus, states to the chorus The treachery was the womans work, clearly. 13 In the prologue, the security guard comments That woman -she manoeuvres like a man. 14Firstly, Clytaemnestra has overstepped the divide that marked the different statuses of men and women in the polis, on account of her masculine behaviour. Aeschylus, through tragedy, has illustrated that if women are not supervised within society, the social structure will collapse, as they are lead by their emotions. This would have highlighted the importance of the kyrios, who acted as a defender to Athenian women, to keep them in check within the polis. Moreover, this illustrates the common perception of women, as tragic heroines are often perceived as being manipulative, treacherous and unfaithful.This is emphasised by the character of Clytaemnestra, as well as Electra, who later persuades h er brother, Orestes, to kill their mother, in Aeschylus Eumenides and Euripides Electra. These characteristics illustrate that women are unworthy to lead the state, and highlights the insistence that they remain inferior to men within the social structure, maintaining their role in family matters. In Aristophanic comedies, such as Lysistrata, women were also depicted as being drunkards and sex fiends, qualities that were associated with slaves.This is noteworthy, as slaves were considered not to be wholly reposition and without possessing any rights within the polis, such as voting. Furthermore, slaves and women were also both low down in the social structure. Aristotle in his Politics, stated that women were, slaves by nature. This demonstrates the lack of emancipation that women possessed, highlighting their privacy within classical Athens. The majority of the time, women were physically kept within the home-apart from when they participated in particular public events-to keep them subordinate, in a social context.Furthermore, according to Solon15, if a woman was in the fellowship of men all the time, she would not want to get married. Thus she would be defying her role as a life giver and producer of heirs, and so she would be disrupting her status within the polis. In contrast, in the heroic age of Homer, women were given a considerable amount of freedom, for example, we see Helen with Priam, on the walls of Troy, pointing out to all the different Greek warriors. Moreover, Penelope, in the Odyssey, acts as the hostess at the banquet of the suitors, totally surrounded by men.We can see that the seclusion of women became more intense with the founding of the polis, which brought along a greater need to categorise the genders. The concept of gender is also very significant when studying the politics of ancient capital of Italy. Roman historians of the imperial era have put down the great influence of women on particular male emperors. For example, the hi storian, Tacitus, in his Annals, records the influence of Neros mother, Agrippina the Younger, on his political career. It is she who initiates the poisoning of her husband, Claudius, and his son, Britannicus, so that Nero can usurp the power of the empire.Roman coins depict her bust, alongside that of her sons, displaying that she is ruling with him. It is significant that her role becomes less influential as Nero grows up and adopts more power. This is again illustrated through the medium of the coins, as we can note the gradual removal of her image from the obverse of the coins. The influence of his mother was so strong that he could only be freed from it, by attempting to murder her, through a collapsing boat. Thus, this demonstrates that imperial women dominated their male associates and played a leading role within in the running of the state.However, we should note that they still remained in the background, ruling behind their male relatives, as Rome was a male dominated sta te. Clark suggests that, women might, then, have considerable influence and interests distant their home and families, but they were acting from within their families to affect a social system managed by men their influence was not to be in public acknowledged. 16 However, it has also been recorded that other imperial women had infiltrated the very male event of patronage.Octavia had acted or had interceded with male relatives as a patron, also, Messalina and Agrippina the Younger, were the patrons of Claudius freedmen, such as Narcissus. This highlights the prestigious role of women in the empire. It is also significant that they were involved in particular public affairs, demonstrating that the social structure of Rome was gradually changing form being solely a male establishment, to a state outwardly influenced by both genders. Furthermore, Dio records that the senate honoured Livia with an arch as she had helped many senatorial children in times of need.7 Likewise, the public recognition of Livias role in the running of the state was acknowledged by the senate. However, it is important to note that the prominent role of women during the imperial period was not considerably favoured by all. Fischler comments that many men considered a good emperor to have had wives and mothers that he could control and who never overstepped the boundaries set by convention. 18 For example, Tiberius refused honours for his mother, Livia, because he did not want to seem to be influenced by her actions.Women may have been more prominent in the political sphere but it was not fully approved by the public opinion, which was aired by the majority of men. The significant role of women was fully acknowledged by Augustus, the first Roman emperor, who recognised the importance of women as figures of a new political regime. They represented the move from the republican era to the Imperial era, as they were significant members of his dynasty. Fischler goes onto observe that women we re symbols of the imperial order. 19 The society of the Republic was less tolerant of the presence of women in the public eye.They had some rights within the state, such as, they were not allowed to vote or, as Valerius Maximus records, appear or act in courts20 and were generally under the potestas of the paterfamilias. However, unlike the Greek polis women were not secluded from society, as they were allowed to own property and divorce their husbands. There were two types of marriage- that of cum manu, in which the woman remained under her fathers rule, as he even had the power to end her marriage or that of sine manu, in which women were allowed to own their own property an divorce their husbands.The former type of marriage was common in the early Republic and the latter, in the late Republic. This illustrates the progression of womens freedom in society and their further prominence in the public eye. The perception of gender and the way it affected the structure of society can be noted in forms of literature, such as satire. For example, Juvenal, who was piece of music either under the emperor, Trajan or Domitian, perceives the progression of women in the public sphere as a bad thing.That is, women had transgressed the divide between the genders, as they had adopted masculine roles in society, such as acting in political matters, demonstrated in Tacitus portrayal of Agrippina. Furthermore Juvenal goes onto condemn the public sexuality of women and the growing fuzziness of men. In a social context. He highlights the breakdown of the social structure of the Roman society, that is, he considers the sexes to have intensifyd roles and transgressed their divisions, which had given certain roles to men and to women in order to structure society.For example, he describes the whore empress coming home from the bathhouse to the Imperial palace. 21 Furthermore, his female persona attacks males for preferring homosexuality and states that overseas good deal are laughing at their effeminacy. 22 In contrast, he frequently extols the old virtues of chastity in women and praises the good old days, when men worked in fields and completed other masculine tasks23. Thus highlighting the change of roles in gender, on account of a changing society.In conclusion, we can argue that the concept of gender is extremely important when studying ancient history, as it played a significant role in defining the structure of society. The progression of society, both Greek and Roman, can also be marked by the changing perceptions of each gender, found in capacious literary sources and archaeological material. These sources of evidence make it possible to study gender, up to now we should also take into account, when using literature as evidence, some external influences. For example, when consulting tragedy or comedy.For the perception of Greek women, we should note that the playwrights exaggerated the characteristics of figures, for outstanding effects. Tha t is to say, in the polis, not all Greek women were alcoholics with a sex addiction, as portrayed in Aristophanic comedies. Likewise, from Juvenals satires we cannot assume that all Roman women were promiscuous, due to the devolution of their social structure. The ancient writers were assuming the worst-case-scenarios, highlighting what would happen without a social structure in society.However, there is truth behind these pieces of literature, as the authors had to base their work on realism, so that their audiences could relate to their work. Furthermore, we should take into consideration the genre that the author was writing for, for example, Tacitus was considered to be a silver age writer, thus his writing would have portrayed characteristics of that type. Thus, his work is macabre and sombre therefore his portrayals of his characters would reflect that style. Likewise, archaeological evidence should be considered with care, as depictions on pots and vases are left-hand(a) to our own personal interpretation.